National Cancer Institute

at the National Institutes of Health

Reviewed: 11/17/2010

Tea and Cancer Prevention: Strengths and Limits of the Evidence

Key Points

Tea contains polyphenol compounds, particularly catechins, which are antioxidants and whose biological activities may be relevant to cancer prevention (see Questions 2 and 3).
Few clinical trials of tea consumption and cancer prevention have been conducted and their results have been inconclusive (see Question 5).
Results of epidemiologic studies examining the association between tea consumption and cancer risk have been inconclusive (see Question 5).
Inconsistencies in study findings regarding tea and cancer risk may be due to variability in tea preparation, tea consumption, the bioavailability of tea compounds (the amounts that can be absorbed by the body), lifestyle differences, and individual genetic differences (see Question 5).
The National Cancer Institute does not recommend for or against the use of tea to reduce the risk of any type of cancer (see Question 6).

What is tea?
Tea is one of the most ancient and popular beverages consumed around the world. Black tea accounts for about 75 percent of the world’s tea consumption (1). In the United States, United Kingdom (UK), and Europe, black tea is the most common tea beverage consumed; green tea is the most popular tea in Japan and China (2). Oolong and white tea are consumed in much lesser amounts around the world (2).
Tea is made from the leaf of the plant Camellia sinensis. Shortly after harvesting, tea leaves begin to wilt and oxidize. During oxidation, chemicals in the leaves are broken down by enzymes, resulting in darkening of the leaves and the well-recognized aroma of tea. This oxidation process can be stopped by heating, which inactivates the enzymes. The amount of oxidation and other aspects of processing determine a tea’s type. Black tea is produced when tea leaves are wilted, bruised, rolled, and fully oxidized. In contrast, green tea is made from unwilted leaves that are not oxidized. Oolong tea is made from wilted, bruised, and partially oxidized leaves, creating an intermediate kind of tea. White tea is made from young leaves or growth buds that have undergone minimal oxidation. Dry heat or steam can be used to stop the oxidation process, and then the leaves are dried to prepare them for sale.
Tea is brewed from dried leaves and buds (either in tea bags or loose), prepared from dry instant tea mixes, or sold as ready-to-drink iced teas. So-called herbal teas are not really teas but infusions of boiled water with dried fruits, herbs, and/or flowers.

What are the ingredients of tea?

Tea is composed of polyphenols, alkaloids (caffeine, theophylline, and theobromine), amino acids, carbohydrates, proteins, chlorophyll, volatile organic compounds (chemicals that readily produce vapors and contribute to the odor of tea), fluoride, aluminum, minerals, and trace elements (3). The polyphenols, a large group of plant chemicals that includes the catechins (4), are thought to be responsible for the health benefits that have traditionally been attributed to tea, especially green tea. The most active and abundant catechin in green tea is epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG). The active catechins and their respective concentrations in green tea infusions are listed in the table below.

Catechin Concentrations of Green Tea Infusions

Catechin in Green Tea Infusion	Catechin Concentration (mg/L)*	Catechin Concentration (mg/8 fl oz)*
Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG)	117–442	25–106
Epigallocatechin (EGC)	203–471	49–113
Epicatechin-3-gallate (ECG)	17–150	4–36
Epicatechin (EC)	25–81	6–19

*mg = milligram; L = liter; fl oz = fluid ounce. See reference 5.

Black tea contains much lower concentrations of these catechins than green tea (6). The extended oxidation of black tea increases the concentrations of thearubigins and theaflavins, two types of complex polyphenols (2). Oolong tea contains a mixture of simple polyphenols, such as catechins, and complex polyphenols (2). White and green tea contain similar amounts of EGCG but different amounts of other polyphenols (7).

Although iced and ready-to-drink teas are becoming popular worldwide, they may not have the same polyphenol content as an equal volume of brewed tea (8). The polyphenol concentration of any particular tea beverage depends on the type of tea, the amount used, the brew time, and the temperature (3). The highest polyphenol concentration is found in brewed hot tea, less in instant preparations, and lower amounts in iced and ready-to-drink teas (3). As the percentage of tea solids (i.e., dried tea leaves and buds) decreases, so does the polyphenol content (9). Ready-to-drink teas frequently have lower levels of tea solids and lower polyphenol contents because their base ingredient may not be brewed tea (10). The addition of other liquids, such as juice, will further dilute the tea solids (9). Decaffeination reduces the catechin content of teas (11).

Dietary supplements containing green tea extracts are also available (1). In a U.S. study that evaluated 19 different green tea supplements for tea catechin and caffeine content, the product labels varied in their presentation of catechin and caffeine information, and some values reported on product labels were inconsistent with analyzed values (1).

How might tea help prevent cancer?
Among their many biological activities, the predominant polyphenols in green tea―EGCG, EGC, ECG, and EC―and the theaflavins and thearubigins in black teas have antioxidant activity (12). These chemicals, especially EGCG and ECG, have substantial free radical scavenging activity and may protect cells from DNA damage caused by reactive oxygen species (12). Tea polyphenols have also been shown to inhibit tumor cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in laboratory and animal studies (1, 13). In other laboratory and animal studies, tea catechins have been shown to inhibit angiogenesis and tumor cell invasiveness (14). In addition, tea polyphenols may protect against damage caused by ultraviolet (UV) B radiation (13, 15), and they may modulate immune system function (16). Furthermore, green teas have been shown to activate detoxification enzymes, such as glutathione S-transferase and quinone reductase, that may help protect against tumor development (16). Although many of the potential beneficial effects of tea have been attributed to the strong antioxidant activity of tea polyphenols, the precise mechanism by which tea might help prevent cancer has not been established (13).
Are there safety considerations regarding tea consumption?
Tea as a food item is generally recognized as safe by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Safety studies have looked at the consumption of up to 1200 mg of EGCG in supplement form in healthy adults over 1- to 4-week time periods (17, 18). The adverse effects reported in these studies included excess intestinal gas, nausea, heartburn, stomach ache, abdominal pain, dizziness, headache, and muscle pain (17, 18). In a Japanese study, children aged 6 to 16 years consumed a green tea beverage containing 576 mg catechins (experimental group) or 75 mg catechins (control group) for 24 weeks with no adverse effects (19). The safety of higher doses of catechins in children is not known.
As with other caffeinated beverages, such as coffee and colas, the caffeine contained in many tea products could potentially cause adverse effects, including tachycardia, palpitations, insomnia, restlessness, nervousness, tremors, headache, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and diuresis (20). However, there is little evidence of health risks for adults consuming moderate amounts of caffeine (about 300 to 400 mg per day). A review by Health Canada concluded that moderate caffeine intakes of up to 400 mg per day (equivalent to 6 mg per kilogram [kg] body weight) were not associated with adverse effects in healthy adults (21). The amount of caffeine present in tea varies by the type of tea; the caffeine content is higher in black teas, ranging from 64 to 112 mg per 8 fl oz serving, followed by oolong tea, which contains about 29 to 53 mg per 8 fl oz serving (4). Green and white teas contain slightly less caffeine, ranging from 24 to 39 mg per 8 fl oz serving and 32 to 37 mg per 8 fl oz serving, respectively (22). Decaffeinated teas contain less than 12 mg caffeine per 8 fl oz serving (22). Research on the effects of caffeine in children is limited (20). In general, caffeine doses of less than 3.0 mg per kg body weight have not resulted in adverse effects in children (20). Higher doses have resulted in some behavioral effects, such as increased nervousness or anxiety and sleep disturbances (21).
Aluminum, a neurotoxic element, is found in varying quantities in tea plants. Studies have found concentrations of aluminum (which is naturally taken up from soil) in infusions of green and black teas that range from 14 to 27 micrograms per liter (μg/L) to 431 to 2239 μg/L (4). The variations in aluminum content may be due to different soil conditions, different harvesting periods, and water quality (4). Aluminum can accumulate in the body and cause osteomalacia and neurodegenerative disorders, especially in individuals with renal failure (4). However, it is not clear how much of the aluminum in tea is bioavailable, and there is no evidence of any aluminum toxicity associated with drinking tea (4).
Black and green tea may inhibit iron bioavailability from the diet (4). This effect may be important for individuals who suffer from iron-deficiency anemia (4). The authors of a systematic review of 35 studies on the effect of black tea drinking on iron status in the UK concluded that, although tea drinking limited the absorption of non-heme iron from the diet, there was insufficient evidence to conclude that this would have an effect on blood measures (i.e., hemoglobin and ferritin concentrations) of overall iron status in adults (23). However, among preschool children, statistically significant relationships were observed between tea drinking and poor iron status (23). The interaction between tea and iron can be mitigated by consuming, at the same meal, foods that enhance iron absorption, such as those that contain vitamin C (e.g., lemons), and animal foods that are sources of heme iron (e.g., red meat) (4). Consuming tea between meals appears to have a minimal effect on iron absorption (4).
What evidence from human studies links tea to cancer prevention?
Tea has long been regarded as an aid to good health, and many believe it can help reduce the risk of cancer. Most studies of tea and cancer prevention have focused on green tea (13). Although tea and/or tea polyphenols have been found in animal studies to inhibit tumorigenesis at different organ sites, including the skin, lung, oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon, liver, pancreas, and mammary gland (24), the results of human studies—both epidemiologic and clinical studies—have been inconclusive.
Epidemiologic Studies
More than 50 epidemiologic studies of the association between tea consumption and cancer risk have been published since 2006. The results of these studies have often been inconsistent, but some have linked tea consumption to reduced risks of cancers of the colon, breast, ovary, prostate, and lung (6, 25–57). The inconsistent results may be due to variables such as differences in tea preparation and consumption, the types of tea studied (green, black, or both), the methods of tea production, the bioavailability of tea compounds, genetic variation in how people respond to tea consumption, the concomitant use of tobacco and alcohol, and other lifestyle factors that may influence a person’s risk of developing cancer, such as physical activity or weight status.
Clinical Trials
Several clinical trials have investigated the role of tea and tea polyphenols in cancer prevention (58–66). However, few trials have examined the effects of tea or tea polyphenols on cancer incidence or mortality.
Two randomized trials evaluated the effects of tea extracts on premalignant oral lesions (58, 59). One of the trials was a double-blind interventional trial involving 59 people with leukoplakia, which is a putative precursor lesion for oral cancer (58). The trial’s participants were randomly assigned to receive either 3 grams of a mixed tea product, given both orally and topically, or a placebo. After 6 months, 38 percent of the participants in the treatment group had partial regression of their oral lesions compared with 10 percent of the participants in the placebo group. In addition, fewer participants in the treatment group than in the placebo group had an increase in lesion size (3 percent in the treatment group versus 7 percent in the placebo group). Furthermore, mucosal cell proliferation decreased in the treatment group, suggesting a possible protective effect of tea on the development of oral cancer. In contrast, in the second trial, 39 people with high-risk premalignant oral lesions were randomly assigned to receive one of three doses of a green tea extract—500 mg per square meter of body surface area (mg/m²), 750 mg/m², or 1000 mg/m²—or a placebo three times daily for 12 weeks (59). At the end of the trial, no differences in lesion responses or histology were found between the groups.
Two other randomized trials examined the effects of tea on urine levels of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), a biomarker of oxidative DNA damage that may be a predictor of increased cancer risk. Urinary 8-OHdG levels are higher in individuals with lung cancer than in control subjects, and human breast, lung, liver, kidney, brain, stomach, and ovarian tumor tissue has a higher content of 8-OHdG than adjacent nontumor tissue (60). In one trial, 133 adult heavy smokers were randomly assigned to drink 4 cups of one of the following beverages each day for 4 months: decaffeinated green tea, decaffeinated black tea, or water (60). Among those who drank green tea, there was a statistically significant 31 percent decrease in urinary levels of 8-OHdG; in the black tea group, there was no change in urinary 8-OHdG levels (60). In the second trial, 124 individuals at increased risk of liver cancer due to hepatitis B virus infection and aflatoxin exposure took a placebo or 500 mg or 1000 mg of a green tea polyphenol supplement daily (61). The two supplement doses were reported to be equivalent to 2 or 4 cups, respectively, of green tea infusions. No other tea or tea products were consumed. Compared with those in the placebo group, individuals who took the green tea supplement at either dose for 3 months had substantially lower urinary 8-OHdG levels (61). Although these trials indicate that green tea polyphenols from tea or supplements can reduce urinary 8-OHdG levels, it is unclear if reduced 8-OHdG levels are associated with reduced cancer risk.
Additional trials have investigated whether green tea catechins or green tea extracts alter prostate cancer risk. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 60 men took 200 mg of green tea catechin or a placebo three times daily for 1 year (62). These men had high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia, which is thought to be a precursor of prostate cancer. After 1 year, fewer prostate cancers were detected in the green tea catechin group (1 cancer in 30 men) compared with the placebo group (9 cancers in 30 men) (62). Two other clinical trials, both uncontrolled studies, investigated the use of green tea extracts to reduce prostate-specific antigen levels in men with prostate cancer and found no evidence of such a reduction (63, 64).
Another trial examined the effect of tea polyphenols on serum pepsinogen levels in 163 individuals with high serum pepsinogen levels (65). Serum pepsinogen is a biomarker of gastric atrophy and an indicator of increased risk for stomach cancer. The participants in this trial were given either one or six 100-mg capsules of tea polyphenols daily for 1 year. Each capsule was the equivalent of about 1.7 cups of tea. After 1 year, no decrease in serum pepsinogen levels was observed in either treatment group (65).
In yet another trial, a possible role for green tea supplements in treating precancerous lesions of the esophagus was investigated (66). In the trial, 200 Chinese participants with such lesions were treated with 5 mg of a decaffeinated green tea extract daily or a placebo. After 12 months, lesion histopathology was scored as improved, unchanged, or deteriorated. The trial found no difference between the treatment and placebo groups with regard to changes in the esophageal lesions or in abnormal cell proliferation (66).
Does the National Cancer Institute (NCI) recommend the use of tea to prevent cancer?
NCI is a research institution. It develops evidence-based research results for others to interpret. In general, therefore, NCI does not make recommendations about specific medical or dietary interventions.
Moreover, as noted above (see Question 5), the evidence regarding the potential benefits of tea consumption in relation to cancer is inconclusive at present.

Selected References

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Glossary Terms

adverse effect (AD-vers eh-FEKT)

An unexpected medical problem that happens during treatment with a drug or other therapy. Adverse effects do not have to be caused by the drug or therapy, and they may be mild, moderate, or severe. Also called adverse event.

aflatoxin (A-fluh-TOK-sin)

A harmful substance made by certain types of mold (Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus) that is often found on poorly stored grains and nuts. Consumption of foods contaminated with aflatoxin is a risk factor for primary liver cancer.

alkaloid (AL-kuh-loyd)

A member of a large group of substances found in plants and in some fungi. Alkaloids contain nitrogen and can be made in the laboratory. Nicotine, caffeine, codeine, and vincristine are alkaloids. Some alkaloids, such as vincristine, are used to treat cancer.

aluminum (uh-LOO-mih-num)

A metallic element that is found combined with other elements in the earth’s crust. It is also found in small amounts in soil, water, and many foods. It is used in medicine and dentistry and in many products such as foil, cans, pots and pans, airplanes, siding, and roofs. High levels of aluminum in the body can be harmful.

amino acid (uh-MEE-noh A-sid)

One of several molecules that join together to form proteins. There are 20 common amino acids found in proteins.

anemia (uh-NEE-mee-uh)

A condition in which the number of red blood cells is below normal.

angiogenesis (AN-jee-oh-JEH-neh-sis)

Blood vessel formation. Tumor angiogenesis is the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow. This is caused by the release of chemicals by the tumor.

antioxidant (AN-tee-OK-sih-dent)

A substance that protects cells from the damage caused by free radicals (unstable molecules made by the process of oxidation during normal metabolism). Free radicals may play a part in cancer, heart disease, stroke, and other diseases of aging. Antioxidants include beta-carotene, lycopene, vitamins A, C, and E, and other natural and manufactured substances.

apoptosis (A-pop-TOH-sis)

A type of cell death in which a series of molecular steps in a cell leads to its death. This is the body’s normal way of getting rid of unneeded or abnormal cells. The process of apoptosis may be blocked in cancer cells. Also called programmed cell death.

bioavailable (BY-oh-uh-VAY-luh-bul)

The ability of a drug or other substance to be absorbed and used by the body. Orally bioavailable means that a drug or other substance that is taken by mouth can be absorbed and used by the body.

biomarker (BY-oh-MAR-ker)

A biological molecule found in blood, other body fluids, or tissues that is a sign of a normal or abnormal process, or of a condition or disease. A biomarker may be used to see how well the body responds to a treatment for a disease or condition. Also called molecular marker and signature molecule.

caffeine (ka-FEEN)

A substance found in the leaves and beans of the coffee tree, in tea, yerba mate, guarana berries, and in small amounts in cocoa. It can also be made in the laboratory, and is added to some soft drinks, foods, and medicines. Caffeine increases brain activity, alertness, attention, and energy. It may also increase blood pressure, heart rate, breathing rate, and the loss of water from the body in urine.

carbohydrate (KAR-boh-HY-drayt)

A sugar molecule. Carbohydrates can be small and simple (for example, glucose) or they can be large and complex (for example, polysaccharides such as starch, chitin or cellulose).

cell proliferation (sel proh-LIH-feh-RAY-shun)

An increase in the number of cells as a result of cell growth and cell division.

detoxify (dee-TOK-sih-fy)

To make something less poisonous or harmful. It may refer to the process of removing toxins, poisons, or other harmful substances from the body.

double-blinded (DUH-bul BLINE-ded)

A clinical trial in which the medical staff, the patient, and the people who analyze the results do not know the specific type of treatment the patient receives until after the clinical trial is over.

element (EH-leh-ment)

A basic part of a whole. In chemistry, refers to a simple substance that cannot be broken down into smaller parts or changed into another substance. The basic part of an element is an atom, which contains protons, neutrons, and electrons. All atoms of an element have the same number of protons. Examples of elements are hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and calcium.

enzyme (EN-zime)

A protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body.

epidemiology (EH-pih-dee-mee-AH-loh-jee)

The study of the patterns, causes, and control of disease in groups of people.

fluoride (FLOOR-ide)

A form of the element fluorine that helps prevent tooth decay. Fluoride may be naturally present in drinking water or may be added to it. Fluoride may also be put directly on the teeth, as a gel, toothpaste, or a rinse.

free radical (free RA-dih-kul)

A type of unstable molecule that is made during normal cell metabolism (chemical changes that take place in a cell). Free radicals can build up in cells and cause damage to other molecules, such as DNA, lipids, and proteins. This damage may increase the risk of cancer and other diseases.

gastric atrophy (GAS-trik A-troh-fee)

A condition marked by thinning of the inner lining of the stomach wall and the loss of gland cells in the lining that release substances that help with digestion. It may be caused by infection with the bacterium H. pylori or by certain autoimmune conditions. Gastric atrophy may increase the risk of stomach cancer.

glutathione S-transferase (GLOO-tuh-THY-one ... TRANZ-feh-rays)

A family of enzymes involved in metabolism and in making toxic compounds less harmful to the body.

heme (heem)

The part of certain molecules that contains iron. The heme part of hemoglobin is the substance inside red blood cells that binds to oxygen in the lungs and carries it to the tissues.

hemoglobin (HEE-moh-GLOH-bin)

The substance inside red blood cells that binds to oxygen in the lungs and carries it to the tissues.

hepatitis B virus (HEH-puh-TY-tis ... VY-rus)

A virus that causes hepatitis (inflammation of the liver). It is carried and passed to others through the blood and other body fluids. Different ways the virus is spread include sharing needles with an infected person and being stuck accidentally by a needle contaminated with the virus. Infants born to infected mothers may also become infected with the virus. Although many patients who are infected with hepatitis B virus may not have symptoms, long-term infection may lead to cirrhosis (scarring of the liver) and liver cancer. Also called HBV.

high grade (hy grayd)

A term used to describe cells that look abnormal under a microscope. These cells are more likely to grow and spread quickly than cells in low-grade cancer or in growths that may become cancer.

histology (his-TAH-loh-jee)

The study of tissues and cells under a microscope.

histopathology (HIS-toh-puh-THAH-loh-jee)

The study of diseased cells and tissues using a microscope.

immune system (ih-MYOON SIS-tem)

The complex group of organs and cells that defends the body against infections and other diseases.

incidence (IN-sih-dents)

The number of new cases of a disease diagnosed each year.

insomnia (in-SOM-nee-uh)

Difficulty in going to sleep or getting enough sleep.

intervention (IN-ter-VEN-shun)

In medicine, a treatment or action taken to prevent or treat disease, or improve health in other ways.

iron (I-urn)

An important mineral the body needs to make hemoglobin, a substance in the blood that carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues throughout the body. Iron is also an important part of many other proteins and enzymes needed by the body for normal growth and development. It is found in red meat, fish, poultry, lentils, beans, and foods with iron added, such as cereal.

kilogram (KIH-loh-gram)

A measure of weight. A kilogram is equal to 2.2 pounds.

lesion (LEE-zhun)

An area of abnormal tissue. A lesion may be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).

leukoplakia (LOO-koh-PLAY-kee-uh)

An abnormal patch of white tissue that forms on mucous membranes in the mouth and other areas of the body. It may become cancer. Tobacco (smoking and chewing) and alcohol may increase the risk of leukoplakia in the mouth.

microgram (MY-kroh-GRAM)

One millionth of a gram.

mineral (MIH-neh-rul)

In medicine, a mineral is a nutrient that is needed in small amounts to keep the body healthy. Mineral nutrients include the elements calcium, magnesium, and iron.

modulate (MAH-juh-LAYT)

To adjust, or change.

mortality (mor-TA-lih-tee)

The state of being mortal (destined to die). Mortality also refers to the death rate, or the number of deaths in a certain group of people in a certain period of time. Mortality may be reported for people who have a certain disease, live in one area of the country, or who are of a certain gender, age, or ethnic group.

mucosa (myoo-KOH-suh)

The moist, inner lining of some organs and body cavities (such as the nose, mouth, lungs, and stomach). Glands in the mucosa make mucus (a thick, slippery fluid). Also called mucous membrane.

National Cancer Institute (NA-shuh-nul KAN-ser IN-stih-TOOT)

The National Cancer Institute, part of the National Institutes of Health of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, is the Federal Government's principal agency for cancer research. The National Cancer Institute conducts, coordinates, and funds cancer research, training, health information dissemination, and other programs with respect to the cause, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of cancer. Access the National Cancer Institute Web site at http://www.cancer.gov. Also called NCI.

oral (OR-ul)

By or having to do with the mouth.

organ (OR-gun)

A part of the body that performs a specific function. For example, the heart is an organ.

osteomalacia (OS-tee-oh-muh-LAY-shuh)

A condition in adults in which bones become soft and deformed because they don’t have enough calcium and phosphorus. It is usually caused by not having enough vitamin D in the diet, not getting enough sunlight, or a problem with the way the body uses vitamin D. Symptoms include bone pain and muscle weakness. When the condition occurs in children, it is called rickets. Also called adult rickets.

oxidize (OK-sih-dize)

To cause oxidation (a chemical reaction that takes place when a substance comes into contact with oxygen or another oxidizing substance).

placebo (pluh-SEE-boh)

An inactive substance or treatment that looks the same as, and is given the same way as, an active drug or treatment being tested. The effects of the active drug or treatment are compared to the effects of the placebo.

polyphenol (PAH-lee-FEE-nol)

A substance that is found in many plants and gives some flowers, fruits, and vegetables their color. Polyphenols have antioxidant activity.

prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (prah-STA-tik IN-truh-eh-puh-THEE-lee-ul NEE-oh-PLAY-zhuh)

Noncancerous growth of the cells lining the internal and external surfaces of the prostate gland. Having high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia may increase the risk of developing prostate cancer. Also called PIN.

protein (PROH-teen)

A molecule made up of amino acids that are needed for the body to function properly. Proteins are the basis of body structures such as skin and hair and of substances such as enzymes, cytokines, and antibodies.

randomized clinical trial (RAN-duh-mized KLIH-nih-kul TRY-ul)

A study in which the participants are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments; neither the researchers nor the participants can choose which group. Using chance to assign people to groups means that the groups will be similar and that the treatments they receive can be compared objectively. At the time of the trial, it is not known which treatment is best. It is the patient's choice to be in a randomized trial.

regression (reh-GREH-shun)

A decrease in the size of a tumor or in the extent of cancer in the body.

response (reh-SPONTS)

In medicine, an improvement related to treatment.

serum (SEER-um)

The clear liquid part of the blood that remains after blood cells and clotting proteins have been removed.

tachycardia (TA-kih-KAR-dee-uh)

Rapid beating of the heart, usually defined as greater than 100 beats per minute.

theophylline (thee-AH-fih-lin)

A drug used to improve breathing in people who are short of breath. It belongs to the family of drugs called bronchodilators or respiratory smooth muscle relaxants.

topical (TAH-pih-kul)

On the surface of the body.

trace element (trays EH-leh-ment)

An element found in very small amounts in a given substance. Organisms need certain trace elements to survive.

ultraviolet B radiation (UL-truh-VY-oh-let B RAY-dee-AY-shun)

Invisible rays that are part of the energy that comes from the sun. Ultraviolet B radiation causes sunburn, darkening and thickening of the outer layer of the skin, and melanoma and other types of skin cancer. It may also cause problems with the eyes and the immune system. Skin specialists recommend that people use sunscreens that protect the skin from ultraviolet radiation. In medicine, ultraviolet B radiation also comes from special lamps or a laser and is used to treat certain skin conditions such as psoriasis, vitiligo, and skin tumors of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Also called UVB radiation.

uncontrolled study (UN-kun-TROLD STUH-dee)

A clinical study that lacks a comparison (i.e., a control) group.

vitamin C (VY-tuh-min…)

A nutrient that the body needs in small amounts to function and stay healthy. Vitamin C helps fight infections, heal wounds, and keep tissues healthy. It is an antioxidant that helps prevent cell damage caused by free radicals (highly reactive chemicals). Vitamin C is found in all fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits, strawberries, cantaloupe, green peppers, tomatoes, broccoli, leafy greens, and potatoes. It is water-soluble (can dissolve in water) and must be taken in every day. Vitamin C is being studied in the prevention and treatment of some types of cancer. Also called ascorbic acid.