Purpose of This PDQ Summary
Introduction

Structure of the Skin Function of the Skin

Basal Cell Carcinoma

Introduction Risk Factors for Basal Cell Carcinoma         Sun exposure         Other environmental factors         Pigmentary characteristics         Immunosuppression         Family history         Previous personal history of nonmelanoma skin cancer Major Genes for Basal Cell Carcinoma         PTCH1         PTCH2 Syndromes Associated with a Predisposition to Basal Cell Cancer         Basal cell nevus syndrome         Rare syndromes Interventions         Screening         Primary prevention         Chemoprevention

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Introduction Risk Factors for Squamous Cell Carcinoma         Sun exposure         Other radiation exposure         Other environmental factors         Characteristics of the skin         Immunosuppression         Personal history of nonmelanoma skin cancer Major Genes and Syndromes Associated with a Predisposition for Squamous Cell Carcinoma         Xeroderma pigmentosum         Multiple self-healing squamous epitheliomata (Ferguson-Smith syndrome)         Oculocutaneous albinism         Dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa         Epidermodysplasia verruciformis         Fanconi anemia         Rothmund-Thomson syndrome         Bloom syndrome         Werner syndrome Interventions         Prevention and treatment

Melanoma

Introduction Risk Factors for Melanoma         Sun exposure         Other environmental factors         Pigmentary characteristics         Nevi         Immunosuppression         Family history         Personal history of melanoma         Personal history of nonmelanoma skin cancer Major Genes for Melanoma         CDKN2A/p16, CDKN2B/p15         CDK4 and CDK6         Possible new susceptibility locus at 1p22         Additional evidence for 9p21 loci         Minor genes (genetic modifiers) for melanoma Melanoma Risk Assessment         Genetic testing Interventions         High-risk population         General population

Psychosocial Issues in Familial Melanoma

Motivation and Interest in Genetic Testing for Risk of Melanoma Individuals Who Have Undergone Genetic Testing for Melanoma Susceptibility Risk Awareness, Risk Reduction, and Early Detection Behaviors in Individuals at Heightened Genetic Risk for Melanoma

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Changes to This Summary (03/01/2010)
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Purpose of This PDQ Summary

This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the genetics of skin cancer. This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the Cancer Genetics Editorial Board.

The following information is included in this summary:

• Risk factors for skin cancer, including family history.
• Major genes associated with skin-cancer risk.
• Screening and risk modification for skin cancer.
• Genetic testing for hereditary skin cancer.
• Psychosocial issues associated with hereditary skin cancer and genetic testing.

The summary also contains level-of-evidence designations. These designations are intended to help readers assess the strength of the evidence in relation to specific studies or strategies. A description of how level-of-evidence designations are made is described in detail in the PDQ summary Cancer Genetics Overview.

This summary is intended to provide clinicians a framework (1) for discussing genetic testing, screening, and risk modification options with individuals at risk for hereditary skin cancer and (2) for making referrals to cancer risk counseling services. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions. Information in this summary should not be used as a basis for reimbursement determinations.

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Introduction

 [Note: Many of the medical and scientific terms used in this summary are found in the NCI Dictionary of Genetics Terms. When a linked term is clicked, the definition will appear in a separate window.]

 [Note: Many of the genes described in this summary are found in the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database. When OMIM appears after a gene name or the name of a condition, click on OMIM for a link to more information.]

The genetics of skin cancer is an extremely broad topic. There are more than 100 types of tumors that are clinically apparent on the skin; many of these are known to have familial components, either in isolation or as part of a syndrome with other features. This is, in part, because the skin itself is a complex organ made up of multiple cell types. Furthermore, many of these cell types can undergo malignant transformation at various points in their differentiation, leading to tumors with distinct histology and dramatically different biological behaviors, such as squamous cell cancer (SCC) and basal cell cancers (BCC). In addition to malignant tumors, there are also many types of benign tumors.

Figure 1 is a simple diagram of normal skin structure. It also indicates the major cell types that are normally found in each compartment. Broadly speaking, there are two large compartments—the avascular cellular epidermis and the vascular dermis—with many cell types distributed in a largely acellular matrix.

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Schematic representation of normal skin. The relatively avascular epidermis houses both basal cell keratinocytes and squamous epithelial keratinocytes, the source cells for BCC and SCC, respectively. Melanocytes are also present in normal skin, and serve as the source cell for melanoma. The separation between epidermis and dermis occurs at the basement membrane zone, located just inferior to the basal cell keratinocytes.

The outer layer or epidermis is made primarily of keratinocytes but has several other minor cell populations. The bottom layer is formed of basal keratinocytes abutting the basement membrane. BCC histologically resembles these cells, which gives the cancer its name. The basement membrane is formed from products of keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts, such as collagen and laminin, and is an important anatomical and functional structure. As the basal keratinocytes divide and differentiate, they lose contact with the basement membrane and form the spinous cell layer, the granular cell layer, and the keratinized outer layer or stratum corneum.

The true origin of BCC remains in question. While the histologic similarities between basal cell keratinocytes and BCC suggests a common histogenic pathway, the histologic and immunologic similarities between the outer root sheath cells of the hair follicle provide an alternative etiologic association.[1]

SCC is derived from a more differentiated keratinocyte. A variety of tissues, such as lung and uterine cervix, can give rise to SCC, and this cancer has somewhat differing behavior depending on its source. Even in cancer derived from the skin, SCC from different anatomic locations can have moderately differing aggressiveness; for example SCC from glabrous skin has a lower metastatic rate than SCC arising from the vermillion border of the lip or from scars.

Additionally, in the epidermal compartment, melanocytes distribute singly along the basement membrane and can transform into melanoma. Melanocytes are derived from neural crest cells and migrate to the epidermal compartment near the eighth week of gestational age. Langerhans cells are a third cell type in the epidermis and have a primary function of antigen presentation. These cells reside in the skin for an extended time and respond to different stimuli, such as ultraviolet light or topical steroids, that cause them to migrate out of the skin.

The dermis is largely composed of an extracellular matrix. Prominent cell types in this compartment are fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and transient immune system cells. When transformed, fibroblasts form fibrosarcomas and endothelial cells form angiosarcomas, Kaposi sarcoma, and other vascular tumors. There are a number of immune cell types that move in and out of the skin to blood vessels and lymphatics; these include mast cells, lymphocytes, mononuclear cells, histiocytes, and granulocytes. These cells can increase in number in inflammatory diseases and can form tumors within the skin. For example, urticaria pigmentosa is a condition that arises from mast cells and is occasionally associated with mast cell leukemia; cutaneous T-cell lymphoma is often confined to the skin throughout its course. Overall, 10% of leukemias and lymphomas have prominent expression in the skin.

Epidermal appendages are also found in the dermal compartment. These are derivatives of the epidermal keratinocytes, such as hair follicles, sweat glands, and the sebaceous glands associated with the hair follicles. These structures are generally formed in the first and second trimesters of fetal development. These can form a large variety of benign or malignant tumors with diverse biological behaviors. A surprising number of these tumors are associated with familial syndromes. Overall, there are dozens of different histological subtypes of these tumors associated with individual components of the adnexal structures.

Finally, the subcutis is a layer that extends below the dermis with varying depth, depending on the anatomic location. The subcutis extends to the layer under the skin, which varies according to anatomic location. This deeper boundary can include muscle, fascia, bone, or cartilage. The subcutis can be affected by inflammatory conditions such as panniculitis and malignancies such as liposarcoma.

These compartments give rise to their own malignancies but are also the region of immediate adjacent spread of localized skin cancers from other compartments. For example, an in situ melanoma or SCC is defined as one that it is confined to the epidermis. Especially in the case of melanoma, these boundaries define a staging system. Noncutaneous malignancies also commonly metastasize to the skin. The dermis and subcutis are the most common locations, but the epidermis can also be involved in conditions such as Pagetoid breast cancer.

The skin has a wide variety of functions, including biologic, social, cosmetic, communicative, and sensory, among others. First, the skin is an important barrier preventing extensive water and temperature loss and providing protection against minor abrasions. These functions can be aberrantly regulated in cancer. For example, in the erythroderma associated with advanced cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, alterations in the regulations of body temperature can result in profound heat loss. Second, the skin has important adaptive and innate immunity functions. In adaptive immunity, antigen-presenting cells engender a TH1, TH2, and TH17 response.[2] In innate immunity, the immune system produces numerous peptides with antibacterial and antifungal capacity. Consequently, even small breaks in the skin can lead to infection. The skin-associated lymphoid tissue is one of the largest arms of the immune system. It may also be important in immune surveillance against cancer. Immunosuppression, which occurs during organ transplant, is a significant risk factor for skin cancer. The skin is cosmetically significant through facial expression and hand movements. Unfortunately, areas of specialized function, such as the area around the eyes and ears, are common places for cancer to occur. Even small cancers in these areas can lead to reconstructive challenges.

References

1. Schirren CG, Rütten A, Kaudewitz P, et al.: Trichoblastoma and basal cell carcinoma are neoplasms with follicular differentiation sharing the same profile of cytokeratin intermediate filaments. Am J Dermatopathol 19 (4): 341-50, 1997.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
2. Harrington LE, Mangan PR, Weaver CT: Expanding the effector CD4 T-cell repertoire: the Th17 lineage. Curr Opin Immunol 18 (3): 349-56, 2006.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   

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Basal Cell Carcinoma

Introduction

Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is the most common malignancy in people of European descent, with an associated lifetime risk of 30%.[1] While exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV) is the risk factor most closely linked to the development of BCC, other environmental factors (such as ionizing radiation, chronic arsenic ingestion, and immunosuppression) and genetic factors (such as family history, skin type, and genetic syndromes) also potentially contribute to carcinogenesis. In contrast to melanoma, metastatic spread of BCC is very rare and typically arises from large tumors that have evaded medical treatment for extended periods of time. With early detection, the prognosis for BCC is excellent.

Sun exposure is the major known environmental factor associated with the development of skin cancer of all types. There are different patterns of sun exposure associated with each major type of skin cancer (BCC, squamous cell carcinoma [SCC], and melanoma).

While there is no standard measure, sun exposure can be generally classified as intermittent or chronic, and the effects may be considered acute or cumulative. Intermittent sun exposure is obtained sporadically, usually during recreational activities, and particularly by indoor workers who have only weekends or vacations to be outdoors and whose skin has not adapted to the sun. Chronic sun exposure is incurred by consistent, repetitive sun exposure, during outdoor work or recreation. Acute sun exposure is obtained over a short time period on skin that has not adapted to the sun. Depending on the time of day and a person's skin type, acute sun exposure may result in sunburn. In epidemiology studies, sunburn is usually defined as burn with pain and/or blistering that lasts for 2 or more days. Cumulative sun exposure is the additive amount of sun exposure that one receives over a lifetime. Cumulative sun exposure may reflect the additive effects of intermittent sun exposure, or chronic sun exposure, or both.

Different patterns of sun exposure appear to lead to different types of skin cancer among susceptible individuals. Intermittent sun exposure seems to be the most important risk factor for melanoma. BCC appears to share some risk factors with melanoma.[2,3] Some BCC may be caused by chronic sun exposure, but a large portion (one-third or more) is apparently caused by intermittent sun exposure, similar to that implicated in melanoma. Occupational exposures are associated with SCC risk and recreational exposures with BCC risk. This exposure-response pattern is consistent with the results from a randomized trial of sunscreen efficacy that found statistically significant protection for the development of squamous cell carcinoma but no evidence at all for protection from the development of BCC.[4] It is unlikely that such a trial could be carried out for melanoma because of a lack of statistical power. Therefore, the similarities between BCC and melanoma are all the more critical to understand.

An important exposure that is consistently associated with nonmelanoma skin cancer is exposure to arsenic in drinking water and combustion.[5,6]

Environmental factors other than sun exposure, may also contribute to the formation of BCC and SCC. Petroleum byproducts (asphalt, tar, soot, paraffin, pitch), organophosphate compounds, and arsenic are all occupational exposures associated with cutaneous nonmelanoma cancers.[7-9]

Arsenic exposure may occur through contact with contaminated food, water, or air. While arsenic is ubiquitous in the environment, its ambient concentration in both food and water may be increased near smelting, mining, or coal-burning establishments. Arsenic levels in the U.S. municipal water supply are tightly regulated; however, control is lacking for potable water obtained through private wells. As it percolates through rock formations with naturally occurring arsenic, well water may acquire hazardous concentrations of this material. Medicinal arsenical solutions (Fowler’s solution, Bell’s asthma medication) were once used to treat common chronic conditions such as psoriasis, syphilis, and asthma, resulting in associated late-onset cutaneous malignancies.[10,11] Current potential iatrogenic sources of arsenic exposure include poorly regulated Chinese traditional/herbal medications and intravenous arsenic trioxide utilized to induce remission in acute promyelocytic leukemia.[12,13]

Aerosolized particulate matter produced by combustion of arsenic-containing materials is another source of environmental exposure. Arsenic-rich coal, animal dung from arsenic-rich regions and chromated copper arsenate (CCA)–treated wood produce airborne arsenical particles when burned.[14-16] Burning of these products in enclosed unventilated settings (such as for heat generation) is particularly hazardous.[17]

The high-risk phenotype is fairly conserved across skin cancer types:

• Fair skin.
• Lightly pigmented irides (blue, green).
• Presence of freckles.
• Poor ability to tan.

Specifically, people with more highly pigmented skin demonstrate lower incidence of BCC than do people with lighter pigmented skin. (Refer to the Pigmentary characteristics section in the Melanoma section of this summary for a more detailed discussion of skin phenotypes based upon pigmentation.)

Immunosuppression also contributes to the formation of nonmelanoma skin cancers. Among solid-organ transplant recipients, the risk of SCC is 65 to 250 times higher and the risk of BCC is 10 times higher than in the general population.[18-20] Nonmelanoma skin cancers in high-risk patients (i.e, solid-organ transplant recipients and chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients) occur at a younger age and are more common, more aggressive, and at a higher risk of recurrence and metastatic spread than nonmelanoma skin cancers in the general population.[21,22] Among patients with an unmodified immune system, BCCs outnumber SCCs by a 4:1 ratio; in transplant patients, SCCs outnumber BCCs by a 2:1 ratio.

This increased risk has been linked to the level of immunosuppression and UV exposure. As the duration and dosage of immunosuppressive agents increases, so does the risk of cutaneous malignancy; this effect is reversed with decreasing the dosage of, or taking a break from, immunosuppressive agents. Heart transplant recipients, requiring the highest rates of immunosuppression, are at much higher risk of cutaneous malignancy than liver transplant recipients in whom much lower levels of immunosuppression are needed to avoid rejection.[18,23] The risk appears to be highest in geographic areas of high UV radiation exposure: when comparing Australian and Dutch organ transplant populations, the Australian patients carried a fourfold increased risk of developing SCC and a fivefold increased risk of developing BCC.[24] This speaks to the importance of rigorous sun avoidance, particularly among high-risk immunosuppressed individuals.

Individuals with BCCs and/or SCCs report a higher frequency of these cancers in their family members than do controls. The importance of this finding is unclear. Apart from defined genetic disorders with an increased risk of basal cell carcinoma, a positive family history of any skin cancer is a strong predictor of the development of BCC. Even after adjustment for age, gender and pigmentary traits, one Mediterranean population demonstrated a significant predilection for development of basal cell carcinoma among those with a family history of skin cancer (odds ratio = 17.8).[25]

A personal history of BCC or SCC is strongly associated with subsequent BCC or SCC. There is an approximate 20% increased risk for a subsequent lesion within the first year after a skin cancer has been diagnosed. The mean age of occurrence for these nonmelanoma skin cancers is the middle of the sixth decade of life.[26-31]

Mutations in the gene coding for the transmembrane receptor protein PTCH, or PTCH1, are associated with basal cell nevus syndrome (BCNS) and sporadic cutaneous BCCs. PTCH, the human homolog of the Drosophila segment polarity gene patched (ptc), is an integral component of the hedgehog signaling pathway, which serves many developmental (appendage development, embryonic segmentation, neural tube differentiation) and regulatory (maintenance of stem cells) roles.

In the resting state, the transmembrane receptor protein PTCH acts catalytically to suppress the seven-transmembrane protein Smoothened (Smo), preventing further downstream signal transduction.[32] Stoichiometric binding of the hedgehog ligand to PTCH releases inhibition of Smo, with resultant activation of transcription factors (GLI1, GLI2), cell proliferation genes (cyclin D, cyclin E, myc), and regulators of angiogenesis.[33,34] Thus, the balance of PTCH (inhibition) and Smo (activation) manages the essential regulatory downstream hedgehog signal transduction pathway. Loss-of-function mutations of PTCH or gain-of-function mutations of Smo tip this balance toward constitutive activation, a key event in potential neoplastic transformation.

Demonstration of allelic loss on chromosome 9q22 in both sporadic and familial basal cell carcinomas suggested the potential presence of an associated tumor suppressor gene.[35,36] Further investigation identified a mutation in PTCH that localized to the area of allelic loss.[37] Up to 30% of sporadic BCC demonstrate PTCH mutations.[38] In addition to BCC, medulloblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma, along with other human tumors, have been associated with PTCH mutations. All three malignancies are associated with BCNS, and most people with clinical features of BCNS demonstrate PTCH mutations, predominantly truncation in type.[39]

Truncating mutations in PTCH 2, a homolog of PTCH1 mapping to chromosome 1p32.1-32.3, has been demonstrated in both BCC and medulloblastoma.[40,41] PTCH2 displays 57% homology to PTCH1, differing in the conformation of the hydrophilic region between transmembrane portions 6 and 7, and the absence of C-terminal extension.[42] While the exact role of PTCH2 remains unclear, there is evidence to support its involvement in the hedgehog signaling pathway.[40,43] Recently, a BCNS kindred of Chinese ethnicity was identified with an associated novel PTCH 2 mutation.[44]

BCNS, also known as Gorlin Syndrome, Gorlin-Goltz syndrome, and nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome, is an autosomal dominant disorder with an estimated prevalence of 1 in 57,000 individuals.[45] The syndrome is notable for complete penetrance and extremely variable expressivity, as evidenced by evaluation of individuals with identical genotypes, but widely varying genotypes.[39,46] The clinical features of BCNS differ more among families than within families.[47]

As detailed above, PTCH provides both developmental and regulatory guidance; spontaneous or inherited germline mutations of PTCH in BCNS may result in a wide spectrum of potentially diagnostic physical findings. The BCNS mutation has been localized to chromosome 9q22.3-q31, with a maximum logarithm of the odd (LOD) score of 3.597 and 6.457 at markers D9S12 and D9S53.[45] The resulting haploinsufficiency of PTCH in BCNS has been associated with structural anomalies such as odontogenic keratocysts, with evaluation of the cyst lining revealing heterozygosity for PTCH.[48] The development of BCC and other BCNS-associated malignancies is thought to arise from the classic two-hit suppressor gene model: baseline heterozygosity secondary to germline PTCH mutation as the first hit, with the second hit due to mutagen exposure such as UV or ionizing radiation.[49-53]

The diagnosis of BCNS is typically based upon characteristic clinical and radiologic examination findings. Genetic testing demonstrates PTCH mutations in approximately 60% of individuals with clinical manifestations supporting a diagnosis of BCNS; prenatal testing is available.[54,55] While the diagnostic criteria are outlined in Table 1, several clinical features warrant further discussion. Most notably, BCNS is associated with the formation of both benign and malignant neoplasms. The strongest benign neoplasm association is with ovarian fibromas, diagnosed in 14% to 24% of females affected by BCNS.[52,56,57] BCNS-associated ovarian fibromas are more likely to be bilateral and calcified than sporadic ovarian fibromas.[58]

Other associated benign neoplasms include gastric hamartomatous polyps,[59] congenital pulmonary cysts,[60] cardiac fibromas,[61] meningiomas,[62,63] craniopharyngiomas,[64] fetal rhabdomyomas,[65] leiomyomas,[66] mesenchymomas,[67] and nasal dermoid tumors. Development of meningiomas and ependymomas occurring postradiation therapy has been documented in the general pediatric population; radiation therapy for syndrome-associated intracranial processes may be partially responsible for a subset of these benign tumors in individuals with BCNS.[68-70]

The diagnostic criteria for BCNS are described in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Diagnostic Criteria for Basal Cell Nevus Syndrome (BCNS)

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Diagnosis of BCNS supported by the presence of two major or one major and two minor criteria:
BCC = basal cell carcinoma.
Major Criteria
1. BCC: More than 2 BCCs or 1 BCC diagnosed in persons <20 years.
2. Odontogenic keratocysts of the jaw (histologically proven).
3. Palmar or plantar pits (3 or more).
4. Bilamellar calcification of the falx cerebri.
5. Bifid, fused, or markedly splayed ribs.
6. First-degree relative with BCNS.
Minor Criteria
1. Macrocephaly determined after adjustment for height.
2. Congenital malformations.
	Cleft lip or palate.
	Frontal bossing.
	Coarse facies.
	Moderate/severe hypertelorism.
3. Other skeletal abnormalities.
	Sprengel deformity.
	Marked pectus deformity.
	Marked syndactyly of the digits.
4. Radiological abnormalities.
	Bridging of the sella turcica.
	Vertebral anomalies (hemivertebrae, fusion or elongation of vertebral bodies, modeling defects of the hands and feet, or flame-shaped lucencies of the hands or feet).
5. Ovarian fibromas.
6. Medulloblastoma.

Of greatest concern with BCNS are associated malignant neoplasms, the most common of which is BCC. BCC in individuals with BCNS may appear during childhood as small acrochordon-like lesions, while larger lesions demonstrate more classic cutaneous features.[71] The age at first BCC diagnosis associated with BCNS ranges from 3 to 53 years, with a mean age of 21.4 years; the vast majority of individuals are diagnosed with their first BCC before the age of 20 years.[56,57] Case series have suggested that up to 1 in 200 individuals with BCC demonstrates findings supportive of a diagnosis of BCNS.[45] BCNS has rarely been reported in individuals with darker skin pigmentation; however, significantly fewer BCCs are found in individuals of African or Mediterranean ancestry.[57,72,73] Despite the rarity of BCC in this population, reported cases document full expression of the non-cutaneous manifestations of BCNS.[73] However, in individuals of African ancestry who have received radiation therapy, significant basal cell tumor burden has been reported within the radiation port distribution.[57,66] Thus, cutaneous pigmentation may protect against the mutagenic effects of UV but not ionizing radiation.

Many other malignancies have been associated with BCNS. Medulloblastoma carries the strongest association with BCNS and is diagnosed in 1% to 5% of BCNS cases. While BCNS-associated medulloblastoma is typically diagnosed between the ages of 2 and 3 years, sporadic medulloblastoma is usually diagnosed later in childhood, between 6 and 10 years.[52,56,57,74] A desmoplastic phenotype occurring around age 2 years is very strongly associated with BCNS and carries a more favorable prognosis than sporadic classic medulloblastoma.[75,76] Up to three times more males than females with BCNS are diagnosed with medulloblastoma.[77] As with other malignancies, treatment of medulloblastoma with ionizing radiation has resulted in numerous BCCs within the radiation field.[52,62] Other reported malignancies include ovarian carcinoma,[78] ovarian fibrosarcoma,[79,80] astrocytoma,[81] melanoma,[82] Hodgkin disease,[83,84] rhabdomyosarcoma,[85] and undifferentiated sinonasal carcinoma.[86]

Odontogenic keratocysts–or keratocystic odontogenic tumors (KCOTs) as renamed by the World Health Organization working group–are one of the major features of BCNS.[87] Demonstration of clonal loss of heterozygosity of common tumor suppressor genes, including PTCH, supports the transition of terminology to reflect a neoplastic process.[48] The tumors are lined with a thin squamous epithelium and a thin corrugated layer of parakeratin. Increased mitotic activity in the tumor epithelium and potential budding of the basal layer with formation of daughter cysts within the tumor wall may be responsible for the high rates of recurrence post simple enucleation.[87,88] In a recent case series of 183 consecutively excised KCOTs, 6% of individuals demonstrated an association with BCNS.[87] KCOTs occur in 65% to 100% of individuals with BCNS,[57,89] with higher rates of occurrence in young females.[90]

Several characteristic radiologic findings have been associated with BCNS, including lamellar calcification of falx cerebri;[91,92] fused, splayed or bifid ribs;[93] and flame-shaped lucencies or pseudocystic bone lesions of the phalanges, carpal, tarsal, long bones, pelvis, and calvaria.[94] Imaging for rib abnormalities may be useful in establishing the diagnosis in younger children, who may have not yet fully manifested a diagnostic array on physical examination.

Rombo syndrome, a rare genetic disorder associated with BCC, has been outlined in two case series in the literature.[95,96] The cutaneous examination is within normal limits until age 7 to 10 years, with the development of distinctive cyanotic erythema of the lips, hands, and feet and early atrophoderma vermiculatum of the cheeks, with variable involvement of the elbows and dorsal hands and feet.[95] Development of BCC occurs in the fourth decade.[95] A distinctive grainy texture to the skin, secondary to interspersed small, yellowish, follicular-based papules and follicular atrophy, has been described.[95,97] Missing, irregularly distributed and/or maldirected eyelashes and eyebrows are another associated finding.[95,96]

Bazex-Dupré-Christol syndrome, another genodermatosis associated with development of BCC, has more thorough documentation in the literature than Rombo syndrome. Inheritance is accomplished in an X-linked dominant fashion, with no reported male-to-male transmission.[98-100] Regional assignment of the locus of interest to chromosome Xq24-q27 is associated with a maximum LOD score of 5.26 with the DXS1192 locus.[101]

Characteristic physical findings include hypotrichosis, hypohidrosis, milia, follicular atrophoderma of the cheeks, and multiple basal cell carcinomas, which manifest in the late second decade to early third decade.[98] Documented hair changes with Bazex-Dupré-Christol syndrome include reduced density of scalp and body hair, decreased melanization,[102] a twisted/flattened appearance of the hair shaft on electron microscopy,[103] and increased hair shaft diameter on polarizing light microscopy.[100] The milia, which may be quite distinctive in childhood, have been reported to regress or diminish substantially at puberty.[100] Other reported findings in association with this syndrome include trichoepitheliomas, hidradenitis suppurativa, hypoplastic alae, and a prominent columella.[104,105]

Characteristics of the major hereditary syndromes associated with a predisposition to BCC are described in Table 2 below.

Table 2. Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC) Syndromes

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Syndrome (OMIM link)	Inheritance	Chromosome	Gene	Clinical Findings
AD = autosomal dominant; AR = autosomal recessive; OMIM = Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man; XD = x-linked dominant
Basal cell nevus syndrome, Gorlin syndrome	AD	9q22.3-q31[45]	PTCH1[106,107]	BCC (before age 20 years)
		3.597 to 6.457[45]	PTCH2[44]
Rombo syndrome	AD			Milia, atrophoderma vermiculatum, acrocyanosis, trichoepitheliomas, and BCC (aged 30s to 40s)
Bazex-Dupré-Christol syndrome	XD > AD	Xq24-27[101]	Unknown	Hypotrichosis (variable),[98] hypohidrosis, milia, follicular atrophoderma (dorsal hands), and multiple BCCs (aged teens to early 20s)[98]
Brooke-Spiegler syndrome	AD	16q12-q13[108,109]	CYLD[110,111]	Cylindroma (forehead, scalp),[112] trichoepithelioma (around nose), spiradenoma, and BCC
Multiple hereditary infundibulocystic BCC	AD[113]	Unknown	Unknown	Multiple BCC (infundibulocystic type)
Schopf-Schultz-Passarge syndrome	AR > AD	Unknown	Unknown	Ectodermal dysplasia (hypotrichosis, hypodontia, and nail dystrophy [anonychia and trachyonychia]), hidrocystomas of eyelids, palmo-plantar keratosis and hyperhidrosis, and BCC[114]

Interventions

Screening

As detailed further below, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force does not recommend regular screening for the early detection of any cutaneous malignancies, including BCC. However, once BCC is detected, the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines of care for nonmelanoma skin cancers recommends complete skin examinations every 6 to 12 months for life.[115]

Avoidance of excessive cumulative and sporadic sun exposure is important in reducing the risk of BCC, along with other cutaneous malignancies. Scheduling activities outside of the peak hours of UV, utilizing sun-protective clothing and hats, using sunscreen liberally, and strictly avoiding tanning beds are all reasonable steps towards minimizing future risk of skin cancer. For patients with particular genetic susceptibility (such as BCNS), avoidance or minimization of ionizing radiation is essential to reducing future tumor burden.

The role of various systemic retinoids, including isotretinoin and acitretin, has been explored in the chemoprevention and treatment of multiple BCCs, particularly in BCNS patients. In one study of isotretinoin use in 12 patients with multiple BCCs, including 5 patients with BCNS, tumor regression was noted, with decreasing efficacy as the tumor diameter increased.[116] However, the results were insufficient to recommend use of systemic retinoids for treatment of BCC. Three additional patients, including one with BCNS, were followed long-term for evaluation of chemoprevention with isotretinoin, demonstrating significant decrease in the number of tumors per year during treatment.[116] Although the rate of tumor development tends to increase sharply upon discontinuation of systemic retinoid therapy, in some patients the rate remains lower than their pretreatment rate, allowing better management and control of their cutaneous malignancies.[116-118] In summary, the use of systemic retinoids for chemoprevention of BCC is reasonable in high-risk patients.

Level of evidence: 3aii

A patient’s cumulative and evolving tumor load should be evaluated carefully in light of the potential long-term use of a medication class with cumulative and idiosyncratic side effects. Given the possible side-effect profile, systemic retinoid use is best managed by a practitioner with particular expertise and comfort with the medication class. However, for all potentially childbearing women, strict avoidance of pregnancy during the systemic retinoid course—and for 1 month after completion of isotretinoin and 3 years after completion of acitretin—is essential to avoid potentially fatal and devastating fetal malformations.

References

1. Miller DL, Weinstock MA: Nonmelanoma skin cancer in the United States: incidence. J Am Acad Dermatol 30 (5 Pt 1): 774-8, 1994.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
2. Zanetti R, Rosso S, Martinez C, et al.: Comparison of risk patterns in carcinoma and melanoma of the skin in men: a multi-centre case-case-control study. Br J Cancer 94 (5): 743-51, 2006.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
3. Neale RE, Forman D, Murphy MF, et al.: Site-specific occurrence of nonmelanoma skin cancers in patients with cutaneous melanoma. Br J Cancer 93 (5): 597-601, 2005.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
4. Green A, Whiteman D, Frost C, et al.: Sun exposure, skin cancers and related skin conditions. J Epidemiol 9 (6 Suppl): S7-13, 1999.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
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6. Chen Y, Hall M, Graziano JH, et al.: A prospective study of blood selenium levels and the risk of arsenic-related premalignant skin lesions. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 16 (2): 207-13, 2007.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
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Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Introduction

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the second most common type of skin cancer and accounts for approximately 20% of cutaneous malignancies. Although most cancer registries do not include information on the incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancer, the American Cancer Society estimates that more than a million cases of basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and SCC of the skin will be diagnosed in the United States in 2009.[1]

Mortality is rare from this cancer; however, the morbidity and costs associated with its treatment are considerable.

Sun exposure is the major known environmental factor associated with the development of skin cancer of all types; however, different patterns of sun exposure are associated with each major type of skin cancer. (Refer to the Sun exposure section in the Basal Cell Carcinoma section of this summary for more information.) This section focuses on sun exposure and increased risk of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma.

Unlike BCC, SCC is associated with chronic rather than intermittent intense exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The characteristic pattern of sun exposure linked with SCC is occupational exposure.[2] A case-control study in southern Europe showed increased risk of SCC when lifetime sun exposure exceeded 70,000 hours. People whose lifetime sun exposure equaled or exceeded 200,000 hours had an odds ratio 8 to 9 times that of the reference group.[3] A Canadian case-control study did not find an association between cumulative lifetime sun exposure and SCC; however, sun exposure within 10 years and occupational exposure were found to be risk factors.[4]

In addition to environmental radiation, exposure to therapeutic radiation is another risk factor for squamous cell carcinoma. Individuals with skin disorders treated with psoralen and ultraviolet-A radiation (PUVA) had a threefold to sixfold increase in SCC.[5] This effect appears to be dose-dependent, as only 7% of individuals who underwent fewer than 200 treatments had SCC, compared to more than 50% of those who underwent more than 400 treatments.[6] Therapeutic use of ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation has also been shown to cause a mild increase in SCC (adjusted incidence rate ratio, 1.37).[7] Devices such as tanning beds also emit UV radiation and have been associated with increased SCC risk, with a reported odds ratio (OR) of 2.5 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.7–3.8).[8]

Investigation into the effect of ionizing radiation on SCC carcinogenesis has yielded conflicting results. One population-based case-control study found a relative risk of 2.94 for SCC at the site of previous radiation, as compared with individuals who had not undergone radiation treatments.[9] Cohort studies of radiology technicians, atomic-bomb survivors, and survivors of childhood cancers have not shown an increased risk of SCC, although the incidence of BCC was increased in all of these populations.[10-12] For those who develop SCC at previously radiated sites that are not sun-exposed, the latent period appears to be quite long; these cancers may be diagnosed years or even decades after the radiation exposure.[13]

The effect of other types of radiation, such as cosmic radiation, is also controversial. Pilots and flight attendants have a reported incidence of SCC that ranges between 2.1 and 9.9 times what would be expected; however, the overall cancer incidence is not consistently elevated. Some attribute the high rate of nonmelanoma skin cancers in airline flight personnel to cosmic radiation, while others suspect lifestyle factors.[14-19]

The influence of arsenic on risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer is discussed in detail above. Like BCCs, SCCs appear to be associated with exposure to arsenic in drinking water and combustion products.[20,21] However, this association may hold true only for the highest levels of arsenic exposure. Individuals who had toenail concentrations of arsenic above the 97th percentile were found to have an approximately twofold increase in SCC risk.[22]

Current or previous cigarette smoking has been associated with a 1.5-fold to 2-fold increase in SCC risk,[23-25] although one large study showed no change in risk.[26] Available evidence suggests that the effect of smoking on cancer risk seems to be greater for SCC than for BCC.

Additional reports have suggested weak associations between SCC and exposure to insecticides, herbicides, or fungicides.[27]

Like melanoma and BCC, SCC occurs more frequently in individuals with lighter skin than in those with darker skin.[2,28] However, SCC can also occur in individuals with darker skin. An Asian registry based in Singapore reported an increase in skin cancer in that geographic area, with an incidence rate of 8.9 per 100,000 person-years. Incidence of SCC, however, was shown to be on the decline.[28] SCC is the most common form of skin cancer in black individuals in the United States, and the mortality rate for this disease is relatively high in this population.[29] Epidemiologic characteristics of, and prevention strategies for, SCC in those individuals with darker skin remain areas of investigation.

Freckling of the skin and reaction of the skin to sun exposure have been identified as other risk factors for SCC.[30] Individuals with heavy freckling on the forearm were found to have a 14-fold increase in SCC risk if freckling was present in adulthood, and an almost three-fold risk if freckling was present in childhood.[30,31] The degree of SCC risk corresponded to the amount of freckling. In this study, the inability of the skin to tan and its propensity to burn were also significantly associated with risk of SCC (OR of 2.9 for severe burn and 3.5 for no tan).

The presence of scars on the skin can also increase the risk of SCC, although the process of carcinogenesis in this setting may take years or even decades. Squamous cell carcinomas arising in chronic wounds are referred to as Marjolin’s ulcers. The mean time for development of carcinoma in these wounds is estimated at 26 years.[32] One case report documents the occurrence of cancer in a wound that was incurred 59 years earlier.[33]

Immunosuppression also contributes to the formation of nonmelanoma skin cancers. Among solid-organ transplant recipients, the risk of SCC is 65 to 250 times higher, and the risk of BCC is 10 times higher than that observed in the general population.[34-36] Nonmelanoma skin cancers in high-risk patients (solid-organ transplant recipients and chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients) occur at a younger age, are more common and more aggressive, and have a higher risk of recurrence and metastatic spread when compared to these cancers in the general population.[37,38] Among patients with an intact immune system, BCCs outnumber SCCs by a 4:1 ratio; in transplant patients, SCCs outnumber BCCs by a 2:1 ratio.

This increased risk has been linked to an interaction between the level of immunosuppression and UV radiation exposure. As the duration and dosage of immunosuppressive agents increase, so does the risk of cutaneous malignancy; this effect is reversed with decreasing the dosage of, or taking a break from, immunosuppressive agents. Heart transplant recipients, requiring the highest rates of immunosuppression, are at much higher risk of cutaneous malignancy than liver transplant recipients, in whom much lower levels of immunosuppression are needed to avoid rejection.[34,39] The risk appears to be highest in geographic areas with high UV exposure. When comparing Australian and Dutch organ transplant populations, the Australian patients carried a fourfold increased risk of developing SCC and a fivefold increased risk of developing BCC.[40] This finding underlines the importance of rigorous sun avoidance, particularly among high-risk immunosuppressed individuals.

Certain immunosuppressive agents have been associated with increased risk for SCC. Kidney transplant patients who received cyclosporine in addition to azathioprine and prednisolone had a 2.8-fold increase in risk of SCC over those kidney transplant patients on azathioprine and prednisolone alone.[34] In cardiac transplant patients, increased incidence of SCC was seen in individuals who had received OKT3 (muromonab-CD3), a murine monoclonal antibody against the CD3 receptor.[41]

A personal history of BCC or SCC is strongly associated with subsequent SCC. A study from Ireland showed that individuals with a history of BCC had a 14% higher incidence of subsequent SCC; for men with a history of BCC, the subsequent SCC risk was 27% higher.[42] In the same report, individuals with melanoma were also 2.5 times more likely to report a subsequent SCC. There is an approximate 20% increased risk for a subsequent lesion within the first year after a skin cancer has been diagnosed. The mean age of occurrence for these nonmelanoma skin cancers is the middle of the sixth decade of life.[24,43-47]

Major genes have been defined elsewhere in this summary as genes that are necessary and sufficient for disease, with important mutations of the gene as causal. The disorders resulting from single-gene mutations within families lead to a very high risk of disease and are relatively rare. The influence of the environment on the development of disease in individuals with these single-gene disorders is often very difficult to determine because of the rarity of the genetic mutation.

Identification of a strong environmental risk factor—chronic exposure to UV radiation—makes it difficult to apply genetic causation for SCC of the skin. Although the risk of UV exposure is well known, quantifying its attributable risk to cancer development has proven challenging. In addition, ascertainment of SCC of the skin cases is not always straightforward. Many registries and other epidemiologic studies do not fully assess the incidence of SCC of the skin owing to: (1) the common practice of treating lesions suspicious for SCC without a diagnostic biopsy, and (2) the relatively low potential for metastasis. Moreover, nonmelanoma skin cancer is routinely excluded from the major cancer registries such as the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results registry.

With these considerations in mind, the discussion below will address genes associated with disorders that have an increased incidence of skin cancer.

Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) is a hereditary disorder of nucleotide excision repair that results in cutaneous malignancies in the first decade of life. Affected individuals have an increased sensitivity to sunlight, resulting in a markedly increased risk of SCCs, BCCs, and melanomas. One report found that nonmelanoma skin cancer was increased 150-fold in individuals with XP; for those younger than 20 years, the prevalence was almost 5,000 times what would be expected in the general population.[48]

The natural history of this disease begins in the first year of life, when sun sensitivity becomes apparent, and xerosis and pigmentary changes may occur in the skin. These manifestations progress to skin atrophy and formation of telangiectasias. Approximately one-half of people with this disorder will develop nonmelanoma skin cancers, and approximately one-quarter of these individuals will develop melanoma.[48] The median age of diagnosis for any skin cancer is 8 years.[48]

Noncutaneous manifestations of XP include ophthalmologic and neurologic abnormalities. Disorders of the cornea and eyelids associated with this disorder are also linked to exposure to UV light and include keratitis, corneal opacification, ectropion or entropion, hyperpigmentation of the eyelids, and loss of eyelashes. Microcephaly, sensorineural hearing loss, diminished deep tendon reflexes, seizures, and cognitive impairment are also found in some affected individuals. DeSanctis-Cacchione syndrome is found in a subgroup of these patients, who exhibit severe neurologic manifestations, dwarfism, and delayed sexual development. A variety of noncutaneous neoplasms, most notably SCC of the tip of the tongue, have been reported in people who have XP.[48,49] The relative risk for these cancers is estimated to be at least fivefold higher than in the general population.

The inheritance for XP is autosomal recessive. Seven complementation groups have been associated with this disorder. Of these, complementation group A, due to mutation in XPA, is the most severe and accounts for approximately 25% of cases. Another 25% of cases are caused by mutations in XPC.[50] Other mutated genes in this disorder include ERCC3 (XPB), ERCC2 (XPD), DDB2 (XPE), ERCC4 (XPF), and ERCC5 (XPG). An XPH group had been described but is now considered to be a subgroup of the XPD group.[51] Heterozygotes for mutations in XP genes are asymptomatic.

The function of the XP genes is to recognize and repair photoproducts from UV radiation. The product of XPC is involved in the initial identification of DNA damage; it binds to the lesion to act as a marker for further repair. The DDB2 (XPE) protein is also part of this process and may work with XPC. The XPA gene product maintains single-strand regions during repair and works with the TFIIH transcription factor complex. The TFIIH complex includes the gene products of both ERCC3 (XPB) and ERCC2 (XPD), which function as DNA helicases in the unwinding of the DNA. The ERCC4 (XPF) and ERCC5 (XPG) proteins act as DNA endonucleases to create single-strand nicks in the 5’ and 3’ sides of the damaged DNA. DNA polymerases replace the lesion with the correct sequence, and a DNA ligase completes the repair.[52,53]

Work on genotype- phenotype correlations among the XP complementation groups continues. The main distinguishing features appear to be the presence or absence of skin cancer and neurologic abnormalities. Most complementation groups are characterized by the presence of cutaneous neoplasia and the absence of neurologic symptoms. However, multiple exceptions to this rule have been described. Mild to severe neurologic impairment has been described in individuals with XPA mutations. A very small number of people in the XPB, XPD, and XPG complementation groups have been identified as having xeroderma pigmentosum-Cockayne syndrome (XP-CS) complex. These individuals have characteristics of both disorders, including an increased predisposition to cutaneous neoplasms and developmental delay, visual and hearing impairment, and central and peripheral nervous system dysfunction. It should be noted that people with Cockayne syndrome without XP do not appear to have an increased cancer risk.[54] Similarly, trichothiodystrophy (TTD) is another genetic disorder that can occur in combination with XP. Individuals affected solely with TTD do not appear to have an increased cancer incidence, but some affected with XP/TTD have an increased risk of cutaneous neoplasia. The complementation groups connected with XP/TTD (XPD and XPB) and XP-CS (XPB, XPD, and XPG) are associated with defects in both transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair and global genomic nucleotide excision repair, whereas the other XP complementation groups have defects only in global genomic nucleotide excision repair.[55] In addition, individuals in the XPD and XPG groups may exhibit severe neurologic abnormalities without symptoms of Cockayne syndrome or TTD. Cerebro-oculo-facio-skeletal syndrome, which has been described with some ERCC2 (XPD) mutations, does not appear to confer an increased risk of skin cancer.[56-59]

An XP variant that is associated with mutations in POLH (XP-V) is responsible for approximately one-fifth of reported cases.[50] This gene encodes for the error-prone polymerase POL-ETA and, unlike other genes associated with XP, is not involved in nucleotide excision repair. People with this variant have the cutaneous and ocular findings consistent with XP, but the neurologic findings are generally not present.

The diagnosis of XP is made on the basis of clinical findings and family history. Functional assays for DNA repair capabilities after exposure to UV radiation have been developed, but these tests are not clinically available. Sequence analysis testing may be done to confirm mutations in XPA and XPC previously identified in an affected family; however, molecular testing for mutations associated with other complementation groups is currently done only in research laboratories.

Ferguson-Smith syndrome, first described in 1934, is characterized by invasive skin tumors that are histologically identical to sporadic cutaneous SCC, but they resolve spontaneously without intervention. The causative gene, previously known as ESS1 and now designated MSSE, has proven elusive. Linkage analysis of affected families has shown loss of the long arm of chromosome 9, and haplotype analysis has localized this gene to 9q22.3 between D9S197 and D9S1809.[60] PTCH (mutated in basal cell nevus syndrome) and XPA (one of the genes associated with xeroderma pigmentosum) are among the candidate genes in this area; however, neither of these genes was found to be mutated in the families affected with multiple self-healing squamous epitheliomata.[61] Two fructose bisphosphatase genes (FBP1 and FBP2), a possible membrane alanine aminopeptidase (C9orf3), and three other genes of unknown function (AL133071, FLJ14753, and CDC14B) are additional candidates.[62]

Somatic loss of heterozygosity in Ferguson-Smith-related SCC has been demonstrated at this genomic location, suggesting that this gene is likely a tumor suppressor gene.[62] The long arm of chromosome 9 has also been a site of interest in sporadic SCC. Up to 65% of sporadic SCCs have been found to have loss of heterozygosity at 9q22.3 between D9S162 and D9S165.[62]

Two types of oculocutaneous albinism are known to be associated with increased risk of SCC of the skin. Oculocutaneous albinism type 1, or tyrosinase-related albinism, is caused by mutations in the tyrosinase gene, TYR, located on the long arm of chromosome 11. The OCA2 gene, also known as the P gene, is mutated in oculocutaneous albinism type 2, or tyrosinase-positive albinism. Both disorders are autosomal recessive, with frequent compound heterozygosity.

Tyrosinase acts as the critical enzyme in the synthesis of melanin in melanocytes. Mutation in this gene in oculocutaneous albinism type 1 produces proteins with minimal to no activity, corresponding to the OCA1B and OCA1A phenotypes, respectively. Individuals with OCA1B have light skin, hair, and eye coloring at birth but develop some pigment during their lifetimes, while the coloring of those with OCA1A does not darken with age.

The gene product of OCA2 is a protein found in the membrane of melanosomes. Its function is unknown, but it may play a role in maintaining the structure or pH of this environment.[63] Murine models with mutations in this gene had significantly decreased melanin production compared with normal controls.[64]

Mutations in the genes MATP (OCA4) and TYRP1 (tyrosinase-related protein) are associated with less common types of oculocutaneous albinism. The increased risk of SCC of the skin in people with these mutations has not been quantified. It is generally assumed to be similar to other types of albinism.

A subgroup of oculocutaneous albinism type 2 includes people who exhibit a triad of albinism, prolonged bleeding time, and deposition of a ceroid substance in organs such as the lungs and gastrointestinal tract. This syndrome, known as Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome, is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner but may have a pseudodominant inheritance in Puerto Rican families, owing to the high prevalence in this population.[65] The underlying cause is believed to be a defect in melanosome and lysosome transport. A number of mutations at disparate loci have been associated with this syndrome, including HPS1, HPS3, HPS4, HPS5, HPS6, HPS7 (DTNBP1), and HPS8 (BLOC1S3).[66-72] Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome type 2, which includes increased susceptibility to infection resulting from congenital neutropenia, has been attributed to defects in AP3B1.[73]

Two additional syndromes are associated with decreased pigmentation of the skin and eyes. The autosomal recessive Chediak-Higashi syndrome is characterized by eosinophilic, peroxidase-positive inclusion bodies in early leukocyte precursors, hemophagocytosis, increased susceptibility to infection, and increased incidence of an accelerated phase lymphohistiocytosis. Mutations in the LYST gene underlie this syndrome, which is often fatal in the first decade of life.[74-76]

Griscelli syndrome, also inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, was originally described as decreased cutaneous pigmentation with hypomelanosis and neurologic deficits, but its clinical presentation is quite variable. This combination of symptoms is now designated Griscelli syndrome type 1 or Elejalde disease. It has been attributed to mutations in the MYO5A gene, which affects melanosome transport.[77] Individuals with Griscelli syndrome type 2 have decreased cutaneous pigmentation and immunodeficiency but lack neurological deficits. They also may have hemophagocytosis or lymphohistiocytosis that is often fatal, like that seen in Chediak-Higashi syndrome. Griscelli syndrome type 2 is caused by mutations in RAB27A, which is part of the same melanosome transport pathway as MYO5A.[78] Griscelli syndrome type 3 presents with hypomelanosis and does not include neurologic or immunologic disorders. Mutations in the melanophilin (MLPH) gene and MYO5A have been associated with this variant.[79]

Approximately 95% of individuals with the heritable disorder dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa have a detectable germline mutation in the gene COL7A1. This gene, which is located at 3p21.3, is expressed in the basal keratinocytes of the epidermis and encodes for type VII collagen. This collagen forms a part of the fibrils that anchor the basement membrane to the dermis, thereby providing structural stability and resistance to mild skin trauma.[80]

There are two recessively- inherited subtypes of dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa: Hallopeau-Siemens type (RDEB-HS) and non–Hallopeau-Siemens type (non-HS RDEB); and a dominantly inherited form, dominant dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (DDEB). RDEB-HS is the most severe form, with a lifetime SCC risk of more than 75%.[81] The rate of de novo mutation for DDEB is approximately 30%; maternal germline mosaicism has been reported.[82,83]

Glycine substitutions in exons 73 to 75 are the most common mutations in DDEB. G2034R and G2043R account for half of these mutations. Less frequently, splice junction mutations and substitutions of glycine and other amino acids may cause the dominant form of dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa. In contrast, more than 400 mutations have been described for the two types of recessive epidermolysis bullosa. The recessive form of the disease is caused primarily by null mutations, although amino acid substitutions, splice junction mutations, and missense mutation s have also been reported. In-frame exon skipping may generate a partially functional protein in recessive disease. Genotype-phenotype correlations suggest an inverse correlation between the amount of functional protein and severity.

Mutations in COL7A1 result in abnormal triple helical coiling and decreased function, which causes increased skin fragility and blistering. In studies of Ras-driven carcinogenesis in RDEB-HS keratinocytes, retention of the amino-terminal NC1, the first noncollagenous fragment of type VII collagen, is tumorigenic in mice.[84] This retained sequence may mediate tumor-stroma interactions that promote carcinogenesis.

Mutations in either of two adjacent genes on chromosome 17q25 can cause epidermodysplasia verruciformis, a rare heritable disorder associated with increased susceptibility to human papillomavirus (HPV). Infection with certain HPV subtypes can lead to development of generalized nonresolving verrucous lesions, which have the potential to develop into in situ and invasive SCCs. Malignant transformation is thought to occur in about half of these lesions. Approximately 90% of these lesions are attributed to HPV types 5 and 8,[85] although types 14, 17, 20, and 47 have occasionally been implicated. The association between HPV infection and increased risk of SCC has also been demonstrated in people without epidermodysplasia verruciformis; one case-control study found that HPV antibodies were found more frequently in the plasma of individuals with SCC (OR = 1.6; 95% CI, 1.2–2.3) than in plasma from cancer-free individuals.[86]

The genes associated with this disorder, EVER1 and EVER2, were identified in 2002.[87] The inheritance pattern of these genes appears to be autosomal recessive; however, autosomal dominant inheritance has also been reported.[88,89] Both of these gene products are transmembrane proteins localized to the endoplasmic reticulum, and they likely function in signal transduction. This effect may be through regulation of zinc balance; it has been shown that these proteins form a complex with the zinc transporter 1 (ZnT-1), which is, in turn, blocked by certain HPV proteins.[90]

A recent case-control study examined the effect of a specific EVER2 polymorphism (rs7208422) on the risk of cutaneous SCC in 239 individuals with prior SCC and 432 controls. This polymorphism is a (A > T) coding single nucleotide polymorphism in exon 8, codon 306 of the EVER2 gene. The frequency of the T allele among controls was 0.45. Homozygosity for the polymorphism caused a modest increase in SCC risk, with an adjusted OR of 1.7 (95% CI, 1.1–2.7) relative to wild-type homozygotes. In this study, those with one or more of the T alleles were also found to have increased seropositivity for any HPV and for HPV types 5 and 8, as compared with the wild type.[91]

Some evidence suggests nonallelic heterogeneity in epidermodysplasia verruciformis. Another susceptibility locus associated with this disorder has been identified at chromosome regions 2p21-p24 through linkage analysis of an affected consanguineous family. Unlike those with mutations in the EVER1 and EVER2 genes, affected individuals linked to this genomic region were infected with HPV 20 rather than the usual HPV subtypes associated with this disorder, and this family did not have a history of cutaneous SCC.[92]

Fanconi anemia is a complex disorder that is characterized by increased incidence of hematologic and solid tumors, including SCC of the skin. Leukemia is the most commonly reported cancer in this population, but increased rates of gastrointestinal, head and neck, and gynecologic cancers have also been seen.[93] By age 40 years, individuals affected with Fanconi anemia have an 8% risk per year of developing a solid tumor;[93] the median age of diagnosis for solid tumors is 26 years.[94] Multiple cases of cancers of the brain, breast, lung, and kidney (Wilms tumor) have been reported in this population.[94] Data on the incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancers in this population are sparse; however, review of the literature suggests that the age of diagnosis is between the mid-20s and early 30s and that women seem to be affected more often than men.[94-98]

Individuals with this disease have increased susceptibility to DNA cross-linking agents (e.g., mitomycin-C or diepoxybutane) as well as ionizing and UV radiation. Cells from individuals with Fanconi anemia have shown decreased ability to excise pyrimidine dimers.[99] The diagnosis of this disease is made by observing increased chromosomal breakage, rearrangements, or exchanges in cells after exposure to carcinogens such as diepoxybutane.

Thirteen complementation groups have been identified for Fanconi anemia; details regarding the genes associated with these groups are listed in Table 3 below.[100]

Table 3. Genes Associated with Fanconi Anemia

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Gene	Locus	Approximate Incidence Among FA Patients (%)	Pattern of Disease Transmission
AR = autosomal recessive; XLR = X-linked recessive
FANCA (OMIM)	16q24.3	~70	AR
FANCB (OMIM)	Xp22.31	Rare	XLR
FANCC (OMIM)	9q22.3	~10	AR
FANCD1 (BRCA2) (OMIM)	13q12.3	Rare	AR
FANCD2 (OMIM)	3p25.3	Rare	AR
FANCE (OMIM)	6p21.3	~10	AR
FANCF (OMIM)	11p15	Rare	AR
FANCG (XRCC9) (OMIM)	9p13	~10	AR
FANCI (KIAA1794) (OMIM)	15q25-26	Rare	AR
FANCJ (BACH1/BRIP1) (OMIM)	17q22.3	Rare	AR
FANCL (PHF9/POG) (OMIM)	2p16.1	Rare	AR
FANCM (Hef) (OMIM)	14q21.3	Rare	AR
FANCN (PALB2) (OMIM)	16p12.1	Rare	AR

Further investigation has revealed that FANCD1 is the same gene as BRCA2, a gene that causes predisposition to breast and ovarian cancer.[101] Other Fanconi anemia genes, FANCJ (BRIP1) and FANCN (PALB2), have also been identified as rare breast cancer susceptibility genes.[102] (Refer to the PDQ summary on Genetics of Breast and Ovarian Cancer for more information on BRCA2 , BRIP1 , and PALB2 .) Individuals who are heterozygous carriers of other Fanconi anemia-associated mutations do not appear to have an increased risk of cancer, with the possible exception of a twofold increase in breast cancer incidence in FANCC mutation carriers.[103]

Rothmund-Thomson syndrome, also known as poikiloderma congenitale, is a heritable disorder characterized by chromosomal instability. The cutaneous presentation of this condition is an erythematous, blistering rash appearing on the face, buttocks, and extremities in early infancy. Other characteristics of this syndrome include telangiectasias, skeletal abnormalities, short stature, cataracts, and increased risk of osteosarcoma. Areas of hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation of the skin develop later in life, and nonmelanoma skin cancers can develop at an early age.[104] Reports of multiple SCCs in situ have been reported in individuals as young as 16 years.[105] The precise increased risk of skin cancer is not well characterized, but the point prevalence of nonmelanoma skin cancer, including both BCC and SCC, is 2% to 5% in young individuals affected by this syndrome.[106] This prevalence is clearly greater than that found in individuals in the same age group in the general population. Although increased UV sensitivity has been described, SCCs are also found in areas of the skin that are not exposed to the sun.[107]

A detectable mutation in the gene RECQL4 is present in 66% of clinically affected individuals. This gene is located at 8q24.3, and inheritance is believed to be autosomal recessive. RECQL4 encodes the ATP-dependent DNA helicase Q4, which promotes DNA unwinding to allow for cellular processes such as replication, transcription, and repair. A role for this protein in repair of DNA double-strand breaks has also been suggested.[108] Mutations in similar DNA helicases lead to the inherited disorders of Bloom syndrome and Werner syndrome.

At least 19 different truncating mutations in this gene have been identified as deleterious.[109] These mutations cause severe down-regulation of RECQL4 transcripts in this subset of individuals with Rothmund-Thomson syndrome.[110] Cells deficient in RECQL4 have been found to be hypersensitive to oxidative stress, resulting in decreased DNA synthesis.[111] Deficiencies in the RecQ helicases permit hyperrecombination, thereby leading to loss of heterozygosity. Loss of heterozygosity associated with deficiencies of this protein suggests that the helicases are caretaker-type tumor suppressor proteins.[112]

Loss of genomic stability is also the major cause of Bloom syndrome. This disorder shows increased chromosomal breakage and is diagnosed by increased sister chromatid exchanges on chromosomal analysis. Clinical manifestations of Bloom syndrome include severe growth retardation, recurrent infections, diabetes, chronic pulmonary disease, and an increased susceptibility to cancers of many types. The typical skin lesion seen in this disorder is a photosensitive erythematous telangiectatic rash that occurs in the first or second year of life. Although it is most commonly found on the face, it can also be present on the dorsa of hands or forearms. SCC of the skin is the third most common malignancy associated with this disorder. Skin cancer accounts for approximately 14% of tumors in the Bloom Syndrome Registry.[113] Skin cancers occur at an earlier age in this population, with a mean age of 31.8 years at the time of diagnosis.

The BLM gene, located on the short arm of chromosome 15, is the only gene known to be mutated in Bloom syndrome. This gene encodes a 1,417-amino acid protein that is regulated by the cell cycle and demonstrates DNA-dependent ATPase and DNA duplex-unwinding activities. Its helicase domain shows considerable similarity to the RecQ subfamily of DNA helicases. Absence of this gene product is thought to destabilize other enzymes that participate in DNA replication and repair.[114,115]

This rare chromosomal breakage syndrome is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner and is characterized by loss of genomic stability. Sixty-four deleterious mutations described in the BLM gene include nucleotide insertions and deletions (41%), nonsense mutations (30%), mutations resulting in mis- splicing (14%), and missense mutations (16%).[116,117] A specific mutation identified in the Ashkenazi Jewish population is a 6-bp deletion/7-bp insertion at nucleotide 2,281, designated as BLMASH.[118] Many of these mutations result in truncation of the C-terminus, which prevents normal localization of this protein to the nucleus. Absence of functional BLM protein can cause increased rates of mutation and recombination. This somatic hypermutability can thereby lead to an increased risk of cancer at an early age in virtually every organ, including the skin.

Cells from people with Bloom syndrome have been found to have abnormal responses to UV radiation. Normal nuclear accumulation of TP53 after UV radiation was absent in 2 of 11 primary cultures from individuals with Bloom syndrome; in contrast, responses in cultures from people who have XP and ataxia-telangiectasia were normal.[119] The gene product of the BLM gene has also been found to complex with Fanconi proteins, raising the possibility of connections between the BLM and Fanconi anemia pathways for DNA stability.[120]

Like Bloom syndrome, Werner syndrome is characterized by spontaneous chromosomal instability, resulting in increased susceptibility to cancer and premature aging. Diagnostic criteria, often in the setting of consanguinity, include cataracts, short stature, premature graying or thinning of hair, and a positive 24-hour urinary hyaluronic acid test. Cardinal cutaneous manifestations of this disorder consist of sclerodermatous skin changes, ulcerations, atrophy, and pigmentation changes. Individuals with this syndrome have an early onset of cancer and an average life expectancy of fewer than 50 years.[121] The spectrum of cancers associated with this disorder has primarily been described in the Japanese population and includes an increased incidence of sarcoma, thyroid cancers and skin cancers.[122] Approximately 20% of the cancers reported in this syndrome are cutaneous, with melanoma and SCC of the skin accounting for 14% and 5%, respectively.[123] Acral lentiginous melanomas are overrepresented, and SCCs may exhibit more aggressive behavior, with metastasis to lymph nodes and internal organs.[122,124]

Mutations in the WRN gene on chromosome 8p12-p11.2 have been identified in approximately 90% of individuals with this syndrome; no other genes are known to be associated with Werner syndrome. Inheritance of this gene is believed to be autosomal recessive. The product of the WRN gene is a multifunctional protein including a DNA exonuclease and an ATP-dependent DNA helicase belonging to the RecQ subfamily. This protein may play a role in processes such as DNA repair, recombination, replication, transcription, and combined DNA functions.[125-133] Other helicases with similar function are altered in other chromosomal instability syndromes, such as BLM in Bloom syndrome and RecQL4 in Rothmund-Thomson syndrome.

Deleterious mutations described in the WRN gene include stop codons, insertions or deletions, or splicing site mutations causing a frameshift. Of the approximately 35 mutations identified, the most common is 1336C→T, which is found in 20% to 25% of the Japanese and Caucasian populations.[134] In the Japanese population, a founder mutation (IVS 25-1G→C) is present in 60% of affected individuals.[135]

Mutation in the WRN gene causes loss of nuclear localization of the gene product. Intracellular levels of the mRNA and protein associated with the mutated gene are also markedly decreased, compared with those of the wild-type. Half-lives of the mRNA and protein associated with the mutated gene are also shorter than those associated with the wild-type mRNA and protein.[134,136]

Characteristics of the major hereditary syndromes associated with a predisposition to SCC are described in Table 4 below.

Table 4. Hereditary Syndromes Associated with Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Skin

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Condition	Gene	Clinical Testing Availabilitya	Pathway
aFor more information on genetic testing laboratories, see GeneTests: Laboratory Directory.
Xeroderma pigmentosum (complementation group A, group B, group C, group D, group E, group F, and group G)	XPA , XPB/ERCC3, XPC, XPD/ERCC2, XPE/DDB2 , XPF/ERCC4, and XPG/ERCC5	XPA, XPC	Nucleotide excision repair
Xeroderma pigmentosum variant	POLH (XP-V)	No	Error-prone polymerase
Multiple self-healing squamous epithelioma (Ferguson-Smith syndrome)	MSSE	No	Unknown
Oculocutaneous albinism (type IA, type IB, type II, type III, and type IV)	TYR , OCA2, MATP/OCA4, and TYRP1	TYR, OCA2, TYRP1	Melanin synthesis
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome	HPS1 , HPS3, HPS4, HPS5, HPS6, HPS7/DTNBP1, and HPS8/BLOC1S3	HPS1, HPS3, HPS4, HPS7	Melanosomal and lysosomal storage
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome, Type 2	AP3B1	No	Melanosomal and lysosomal storage
Chediak-Higashi syndrome	LYST	LYST	Lysosomal transport regulation
Griscelli syndrome (Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3)	MYO5A , RAB27A, and MLPH	RAB27A	Pigment granule transport
Elejalde Disease	MYO5A	No	Pigment granule transport
Dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (dominant and autosomal recessive subtypes)	COL7A1	COL7A1	Collagen anchor of basement membrane to dermis
Epidermodysplasia verruciformis	EVER1 and EVER2	No	Signal transduction in endoplasmic reticulum
Fanconi anemia	FANCA , FANCB, FANCC, FANCD1/BRCA2, FANCD2, FANCE, FANCF, FANCG/XRCC9, FANCI, FANCJ/BRIP1, FANCL, FANCM, and FANCN/PALB2	Chromosomal breakage testing; BRIP1, FANCA, FANCC, FANCE, FANCF, FANCG, PALB2	DNA repair
Rothmund-Thomson syndrome	RECQL4	RECQL4	Chromosomal stability
Bloom syndrome	BLM/RECQL3	Sister chromatid exchange, BLM	Chromosomal stability
Werner syndrome	WRN/RECQL2	No	Chromosomal stability

Interventions

Prevention and treatment

Because many of the syndromes described above are rare, few clinical trials have been conducted in these specific populations. However, valuable information has been developed from the clinical management experience related to skin cancer risk and treatment in the XP population. Strict sun avoidance beginning in infancy, use of protective clothing, and close clinical monitoring of the skin are key components to management of XP. Full-body photography of the skin, conjunctivae, and eyelids is recommended to aid in follow-up. Although few studies on treatment of SCC in the XP population have been done, in most cases treatment is similar to what would be recommended for the general population. Actinic keratoses are treated with topical therapies such as 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), cryotherapy with liquid nitrogen, or dermabrasion, whereas cutaneous cancers are generally managed surgically.

Level of evidence: 5

Oral isotretinoin has been used as chemoprevention in XP patients with promising results. A small study of daily use of isotretinoin (13-cis retinoic acid; given as 2 mg/kg/day) reduced nonmelanoma skin cancer incidence by 63% in a small number of people with XP. Toxicities associated with this treatment included mucocutaneous symptoms, abnormalities in liver function tests and triglyceride levels, and musculoskeletal symptoms such as arthralgias, calcifications of tendons and ligaments, and osteoporosis.[137,138] Dose reduction to 0.5 mg/kg/day reduced toxicity and decreased skin cancer frequency in three of seven subjects (43%); increasing the dose to 1 mg/kg/day resulted in decreased skin cancer frequency in three of the four subjects who did not respond at the lower dose.[139]

Level of evidence: 3aii

Topical T4N5 liposome lotion, containing the bacterial enzyme T4 endonuclease V, was also investigated as a chemopreventive agent in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of 30 XP patients.[140] Although no effect was seen on incidence of SCC, 17.7 fewer actinic keratoses per year were seen in the treatment group. Additionally, 1.6 fewer BCCs per year were observed in patients being treated with this therapy. Both of these results were statistically significant. The risk of BCC was reduced by 47%, which was of borderline statistical significance. No significant adverse effects of this agent were reported.

Level of evidence 1aii

For patients with XP and unresectable SCC, therapy with 5-FU has been investigated. Several treatment methods were used in this prospective study, including topical therapy to the lesions, short systemic infusion with folic acid, and continuous systemic infusion in combination with cisplatin. Topical 5-FU demonstrated some efficacy, but in some cases viable tumor remained in the deeper dermis. The systemic chemotherapy resulted in one complete response and three partial responses in a total of five patients, suggesting that this therapy may be an option for treatment of extensive lesions.[141] A dose reduction of 30% to 50% has been recommended for systemic chemotherapeutic agents in this population because of the increased sensitivity of XP cells.[142]

Level of evidence: 3diii

For people who have genetic disorders other than XP, data are lacking, but general sun-safety measures remain important. Careful protection of the skin and eyes is the mainstay of prevention in all patients with increased susceptibility to skin cancer. Key points include avoidance of sun exposure at peak hours, protective clothing and lenses, and vigilant use of sunscreen. Some experts recommend dermatologic evaluation every 6 months and ophthalmologic evaluation at least annually in these high-risk populations.

Level of evidence: 5

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116. German J, Ellis N: Bloom syndrome. In: Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW, eds.: The Genetic Basis of Human Cancer. 2nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2002, pp 267-88. 
     
     
117. German J, Sanz MM, Ciocci S, et al.: Syndrome-causing mutations of the BLM gene in persons in the Bloom's Syndrome Registry. Hum Mutat 28 (8): 743-53, 2007.  [PUBMED Abstract]
     
     
118. Ellis NA, Ciocci S, Proytcheva M, et al.: The Ashkenazic Jewish Bloom syndrome mutation blmAsh is present in non-Jewish Americans of Spanish ancestry. Am J Hum Genet 63 (6): 1685-93, 1998.  [PUBMED Abstract]
     
     
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122. Goto M, Miller RW, Ishikawa Y, et al.: Excess of rare cancers in Werner syndrome (adult progeria). Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 5 (4): 239-46, 1996.  [PUBMED Abstract]
     
     
123. Tsuchiya H, Tomita K, Ohno M, et al.: Werner's syndrome combined with quintuplicate malignant tumors: a case report and review of literature data. Jpn J Clin Oncol 21 (2): 135-42, 1991.  [PUBMED Abstract]
     
     
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126. Shen J, Loeb LA: Unwinding the molecular basis of the Werner syndrome. Mech Ageing Dev 122 (9): 921-44, 2001.  [PUBMED Abstract]
     
     
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128. Furuichi Y: Premature aging and predisposition to cancers caused by mutations in RecQ family helicases. Ann N Y Acad Sci 928: 121-31, 2001.  [PUBMED Abstract]
     
     
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Melanoma

Introduction

Both rare, high- penetrance and common, low-penetrance genetic factors for melanoma have been identified, and approximately 5% to 10% of all melanomas arise in multiple-case families. However, a significant fraction of these families do not have detectable mutations in specific susceptibility genes. The frequency with which multiple-case families are ascertained and specific genetic mutations are identified varies significantly between populations and geographic regions. A major population-based study has concluded that high-penetrance susceptibility genes do not make a significant contribution to the incidence of melanoma in the Icelandic population, an observation which must be interpreted in the context of the relatively low levels of sunlight exposure in this region.[1]

Sun exposure is the major known environmental factor associated with the development of skin cancer of all types. There are different patterns of sun exposure associated with each major type of skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma (BCC), squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), and melanoma.

While there is no standard measure, sun exposure has generally been classified as intermittent or chronic, and its effects may be considered short-term or cumulative. Intermittent sun exposure is, by definition, sporadic, and is commonly associated with recreational activities, particularly among indoor workers who use weekend or vacation time to be outdoors and whose skin has not adapted to the sun. Chronic sun exposure is incurred by consistent, repetitive sun exposure, usually during outdoor work or more extensive recreational activities. Acute sun exposure is obtained over a short time on skin that has not adapted to the sun. Depending on the time of day and the skin type of the individual, acute sun exposure may result in sunburn. In epidemiology studies, sunburn is usually defined as an injury associated with pain and/or blistering that lasts for 2 or more days. Cumulative sun exposure is the additive amount of sun exposure that one receives over a lifetime. The impact of cumulative sun exposure likely reflects the additive effects of intermittent sun exposure or chronic sun exposure, or both.

Different patterns of sun exposure appear to lead to different types of skin cancer among susceptible individuals. Intermittent sun exposure seems to be the most important risk factor for melanoma.[2,3] Analytic epidemiologic studies have shown only modest risks related to sun exposure in melanoma development; three systematic reviews have demonstrated similar estimates for the role of intermittent sun exposure, i.e., odds ratios (ORs) of 1.6 to 1.7.[4-6] Chronic sun exposure, as observed in those occupationally exposed to sunlight, is either protective or without increased risk for the development of melanoma, with an OR of 0.7; or shows no increased risk (see Table 5). The biological mechanisms underlying these differences in melanoma risk by sun exposure type have not been fully elucidated.

Table 5. Meta-Analysis Results: Intermittent and Chronic Sun Exposure and Melanoma Risk

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Intermittent Sun Exposure (OR, 95% CI)	Chronic Sun Exposure (OR, 95% CI)	Comments
CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio.
1.6 (1.3–1.9) [4]	0.7 (0.6–0.9)	Lack of standardized measures an issue.
1.7 (1.5–1.9) [5]	0.9 (0.8–0.9)	Mechanisms for the differences in types of sun exposure not understood.
1.6 (1.3–1.9) [6]	0.9 (0.7–1.0)	None.

Although these meta-analyses have yielded very similar risk estimates, the measurement of sun exposure is complex; new studies using comparable protocols in different populations with varying levels of sun exposure are needed.

One explanation offered for the rise in melanoma incidence relates to the differential effects of chronic and intermittent sun exposure; as people have replaced outdoor occupations with indoor occupations, they have engaged in more intermittent sun exposure.[7] Data from very different settings seems to suggest that intermittent sun exposure is critical to the risk for developing melanoma.

The evidence relating lifetime cumulative exposure to melanoma risk comes from two sources: migrant studies and studies of lifetime exposure, controlling for intermittent and occupational exposure. Data from Australia and Italy show that individuals who migrate from areas of low exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, such as the United Kingdom, to areas of high exposure, such as Australia or Israel, before they reach age 10 years have a lifetime risk of developing melanoma that is similar to that of people in the new country.[8-10] Alternatively, adolescents or older individuals who migrate from areas of low solar exposure to areas of high solar exposure have a risk that is more similar to that of people from their area of origin than to that of people in the new area. These data have often been cited as indicating that childhood sun exposure is more important than adult sun exposure in melanoma development. However, the data could also be interpreted as suggesting that the length of high-level exposure is more critical than the age at exposure. Thus, people who migrate early in life to a high-insolation region have a longer potential period for intense exposure than do those individuals who migrate later in life.

Data from Connecticut have shown that cumulative lifetime exposure to ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation does not differ between melanoma cases and controls; rather, intermittent sun exposure is the more important risk factor.[11] The risks related to intermittent sun exposure are even greater if this pattern is experienced both early in life and later in life. These data can also be interpreted as suggesting that sun exposure patterns are rather consistent and stable throughout one's lifetime, i.e., that individuals who receive a great deal of intermittent sun exposure during early life are also likely to receive a great deal of intermittent sun exposure during later life. Nonetheless, an intermittent pattern of sun exposure over many years appears to significantly increase melanoma risk.

The relationship between sun exposure, sunscreen use, and the development of skin cancer is also complex. It is complicated by “negative confounding,” i.e., subjects who are extremely sun sensitive deliberately engage in fewer activities in direct sunlight, and they are more likely to wear sunscreen when they do. These subjects are genetically susceptible to the development of skin cancer by virtue of their cutaneous phenotype and thus may develop skin cancer regardless of the amount of sunlight exposure or the sun protection factor of the sunscreen.[12,13]

There are a number of additional environmental factors that are important to melanoma development (see Table 6).

Table 6. Environmental Exposures Other Than Sunlight Associated with Melanoma^a

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Study Citation	Subjects	Time and Place	Point Estimate
Solvents
[15]	Cohort (N = 23,718)	1970–1994; Sweden	RR = 2.7 (95% CI, 1.1–5.6)
Ionizing Radiation
[16]	Various cohorts (N = 80,000)	Hiroshima, Japan	Excess RR per Sievert = 2.1 (95% CI, <0.01–12)
[17]	U.S. Radiologic Technologists Cohort (N = 90,305)	United States	SIR = 1.59 (95% CI, 1.38–1.80)
[18]	French Atomic Energy Commission workers (N = 58,320)	France	SMR = 1.50 (90% CI, 1.04–2.11) among males
[19]	(N = 3,737)	Canada	SIR = 1.16 (90% CI, 1.04–1.30)
Airline Flight Crews
[20]	Male pilots (N = 10,032)	Scandinavia	SIR = 2.3 (95% CI, 1.7–3.0)
Electromagnetic Fields
[21]	(N = 807 cases, 1,614 controls)	1980–1996; Norway	OR = 1.87 (95% CI, 1.23–2.83)
Vinyl Chloride
[22]	Men in PVC processing plants (N = 717)	Sweden	SMR = 3.4 (95% CI, 1.1–7.9)
[23]	Workers exposed to PVC (N = 428)	Norway	SIR = 2.06, (95% CI, 1.36–6.96)
PCBs
[24]	Occupational cohort of men exposed to PCBs (N = 138,905)	United States	RR = 1.29 (95% CI, 0.96–1.82), 5% increase per 2,000 h of exposure

Cl = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio; PCB = polychlorinated biphenyls; PVC = polyvinyl chloride; RR = relative risk; SIR = standardized incidence ratio; SMR = standard mortality rate.

aAdapted from Gruber et al.[14]

Occupational exposure for airline flight personnel, particularly pilots and flight attendants, appears to be particularly significant.[20,25-32] Since the risk of internal cancers is not consistently elevated in these very large cohort studies, most investigators think that the excess melanoma cancers observed are caused by lifestyle factors such as excessive intermittent sun exposure (i.e., UV radiation that does not penetrate beyond the surface of the skin) rather than cosmic (i.e., ionizing) radiation, which would be expected to increase the risk of radiation-related solid tumors.

Other occupational exposures have been variously and inconsistently associated with melanoma risk. If these reports are genuine, these exposures are likely to account for only a small fraction of cases.[33-35]

Arsenic exposure (both from drinking water and from exposure to combustion products) has been consistently associated with nonmelanoma skin cancer and has more recently been linked to melanoma.[34,36-38] Heavy metals bind to melanin,[39] and occupational studies show that printers and lithographers have increased melanoma risk.[34,40-43] Further clarification of the occupational exposures associated with the development of melanoma in people employed in the printing/lithography trade has been difficult because of the small numbers of workers; the exposure of workers to numerous chemicals, solvents, pigments, and dyes; the extended latency of disease presentation, and changing work practices and environments over the past 50 years.[41] Five studies have shown increased risk of melanoma among electronics workers.[24,43-46] However, more persuasive evidence of metal-related melanoma risk has been documented in the long-term follow-up of individuals with metal-on-metal hip replacements.[47-49]

Pigmentary characteristics are important determinants of melanoma susceptibility. There is an inverse correlation between melanoma risk and skin color that goes from lightest skin to darkest skin. Darker-skinned ethnic groups (blacks, darker Hispanics, Asians) have a very low risk of melanoma; however, individuals in these groups develop melanoma on less-pigmented acral surfaces (palms, soles, nailbeds). Among relatively light-skinned individuals, skin color is modified by genetics and behavior. MC1R is one of the major genes controlling pigmentation (see below); other pigmentation genes are under investigation.

Clinically, several pigmentary characteristics are evaluated to assess the risk of melanoma and other types of skin cancer. These include the following:

• Fitzpatrick skin type. The following six skin phenotypes were defined on the basis of response to sun exposure at the beginning of summer.[50]
  1. Type I: Extremely fair skin, always burns, never tans.
  2. Type II: Fair skin, always burns, sometimes tans.
  3. Type III: Medium skin, sometimes burns, always tans.
  4. Type IV: Olive skin, rarely burns, always tans.
  5. Type V: Moderately pigmented brown skin, never burns, always tans.
  6. Type VI: Markedly pigmented black skin, never burns, always tans.
• Number of nevi or nevus density.
• Abnormal or atypical nevi.
• Freckling.

Patients with multiple nevi demonstrate increased risk of melanoma. While there is evidence that both the presence of multiple nevi and the presence of multiple clinically atypical nevi are associated with an increased risk of melanoma, most studies demonstrate a stronger risk of melanoma with the presence of atypical nevi.[51-54] In addition, patients with multiple atypical nevi, regardless of personal and/or family history of melanoma, are at significantly increased risk of developing melanoma compared with patients without atypical nevi.[55]

Melanoma is 1.6 to 2.5 times more common among recipients of organ transplants than in the general population,[56] an excess that has generally been attributed to the effects of immunosuppressive therapy administered to avoid allograft rejection.

Generally, a family history of melanoma appears to increase risk of melanoma by about twofold. Rarely, however, in some families many generations and multiple individuals develop melanoma and are at much higher risk. The major hereditary melanoma susceptibility gene, CDKN2A, is not responsible for all familial melanoma; it is found to be mutated in approximately 20% to 40% of melanomas in individuals with a family history of melanoma. The definition of a “familial” cluster of melanoma varies by geographical region, worldwide, because of the role played by UV radiation in melanoma pathogenesis. In heavily insolated regions (regions with high ambient sun exposure), three or more affected family members is required; in regions with lower levels of ambient sunlight, two or more affected family members is considered sufficient to define a familial cluster.

A previous melanoma places one at high risk of developing additional primary melanomas, particularly for people with the most common risk factors for melanoma, such as cutaneous phenotype, family history, a mutation in CDKN2A, a great deal of early-life sun exposure, and numerous or atypical nevi. In the sporadic setting, approximately 5% of melanoma patients develop more than one primary cancer, while in the familial setting, the corresponding estimate is 30%. This greater-than-expected rate of multiple primary cancers of the same organ is a common feature of hereditary cancer susceptibility syndromes; it represents a clinical finding that should raise the level of suspicion that a given patient’s melanoma may be related to an underlying genetic predisposition. Risk of a second primary melanoma following diagnosis of a first primary melanoma is approximately 5% and is greater for males and older patients.[57-60]

Having a personal history of BCC or SCC is also associated with an increase in risk of a subsequent melanoma.[61-63] Depending on the study, this risk ranges from a nonsignificant increase for melanoma with a previous SCC of 1.04 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.13–8.18) to a highly significant risk of 7.94 (95% CI, 4.11–15.35).[64,65] It is likely that this relationship is the result of shared risk factors (of which sun exposure is presumably one) rather than a specific genetic factor that increases risk for both. Pigmentary characteristics are critically important for the development of melanoma, and cutaneous phenotype (described above), in combination with excessive sun exposure, is associated with an increased risk of all three types of skin cancers.

The major familial gene associated with melanoma is CDKN2A/p16, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A, which is located on chromosome 9p21. This gene has multiple names (MTS1, INK4, MLM) and is commonly called by the name of its protein, p16. It is an upstream regulator of the retinoblastoma gene pathway, acting through the cyclin D1/cyclin-dependent kinase 4 complex. This tumor suppressor gene has been intensively studied in multiple-case families and in population-based series of melanoma cases. CDKN2A controls the passage of cells through the cell cycle and provides a mechanism for holding damaged cells at the G1/S checkpoint, to permit repair of DNA damage prior to cellular replication. Loss of function of tumor suppressor genes—a good example of which is CDKN2A—is a critical step in carcinogenesis for many tumor systems.

CDKN2A encodes two proteins, p16^INK4a and p14^ARF, both inhibitors of cellular senescence. The protein produced when the alternate reading frame (ARF) for exon 1 is transcribed instead of the standard reading frame exerts its biological effects through the p53 pathway. It mediates cell cycle arrest at the G1 and G2/M checkpoints, complementing p16’s block of G1/S progression—thereby facilitating cellular repair of DNA damage.

Mutations in CDKN2A probably account for 18% or less of familial melanomas.[66] Many mutations reported among families consist of founder mutations, which are unique to specific populations and the geographic areas from which they originate.[67-72]

Depending on the study design and target population, melanoma penetrance related to deleterious CDKN2A mutations differs widely. One study of 80 multiple-case families demonstrated that the penetrance varied by country, an observation that was attributed to major differences in sun exposure.[66] For example, in Australia, the penetrance was 30% by the age of 50 years and 91% by age 80 years; in the United States, the penetrance was 50% by age 50 years and 76% by age 80 years; in Europe, the penetrance was 13% by age 50 years and 58% by age 80 years. Another study of individuals with melanoma identified in eight population-based cancer registries and one hospital-based sample obtained a self-reported family history and sequenced CDKN2A in all individuals. The penetrance was estimated as 14% by age 50 years and 28% by age 80 years.[60] The explanation for these differences lies in the method of identifying the individuals tested with penetrance estimates increasing with the number of affected family members. The method of family ascertainment in the latter study made it much less likely that “heavily loaded” melanoma families would be identified.

The CDKN2A homolog, CDKN2B, is located in close physical proximity to CDKN2A on 9p21 and likely serves to regulate tumor growth and mediate senescence.[73] Despite the physical proximity and structural similarity to CDKN2A, evaluation of multiple familial melanoma kindreds lacking CDKN2A mutations has failed to reveal germline CDKN2B mutations.[74-77]

A subset of CDKN2A mutation carrier families also displays an increased risk of pancreatic cancer.[78,79] The overall lifetime risk of pancreatic cancer in these families ranges from 11% to 17%.[80] The relative risk has been reported as high as 47.8.[81] Although at least 18 different mutations in p16 have been identified in such families, specific mutations appear to have a particularly elevated risk of pancreatic cancer.[82] Mutations affecting splice sites or Ankyrin repeats were found more commonly in families with both pancreatic cancer and melanoma than in those with melanoma alone. The p16 Leiden mutation is a 19-basepair deletion in CDKN2A exon 2 and is a founder mutation originating in the Netherlands. In one major Dutch study, 19 families with 86 members who had melanoma also had 19 members with pancreatic cancer in their families, a cumulative risk of 17% by age 75 years. In this study, the median age of pancreatic cancer onset was 58 years, similar to the median age at onset for sporadic pancreatic cancer.[83] However, other reports indicate that the average age at diagnosis is 5.8 years earlier for these mutation carriers than for those with sporadic pancreatic cancer.[84] Geographic variation may play a role in determining pancreatic risk in these mutation carrier families. In a multicontinent study of the features of germline CDKN2A mutations, Australian families carrying these mutations did not have an increased risk of pancreatic cancer.[85] It was also reported that similar CDKN2A mutations were involved in families with and without pancreatic cancer;[86] therefore, there must be additional factors involved in the development of melanoma and pancreatic cancer. Families with CDKN2A mutations do not appear to have a pattern of site-specific pancreatic cancer only; all of the families identified to date also have some evidence of increased melanoma incidence.[87] Conversely, melanoma-prone families that do not have a CDKN2A mutation have not been shown to have an increased risk of pancreatic cancer.[83]

The Melanoma-Astrocytoma Syndrome is another phenotype caused by mutations in CDKN2A. The possible existence of this disorder was first described in 1993.[88] A study of 904 individuals with melanoma and their families found 15 families with 17 members who had both melanoma and multiple types of tumors of the nervous system.[89] Another study found a family with multiple melanoma and neural cell tumors that appeared to be caused by loss of p14^ARF function or to disruption of expression of p16.[90]

Cyclin-dependent kinases have important roles in progression of cells from G1 to S phase. CDK4 and CDK6 partner with the cyclin–D associated kinases to accelerate the function of the cell cycle. Phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma (Rb) protein in G1 by cyclin-dependent kinases releases transcription factors, inducing gene expression and metabolic changes that precede DNA replication, thus allowing the cell to progress through the cell cycle. These genes are of conceptual significance because they are in the same signaling pathway as CDKN2A.

Germline CDK4 mutations are very rare, being found in only a handful of familial melanoma kindreds.[91-93] All described families demonstrated a substitution of amino acid 24, suggesting this position as a mutation hotspot within the CDK4 gene. Mutation of CDK4 affects binding of p16 with its subsequent inhibition of CDK4 functionality. With constitutive activation of germline CDK4, CDK4 acts as a dominant oncogene.

Despite its functional similarity to CDK4, germline mutations in CDK6 have not been identified in any melanoma kindreds.[94]

A new melanoma susceptibility locus has been identified through a linkage analysis of 49 Australian families containing at least three melanoma cases, in which CDKN2A and CDK4 mutations had been excluded.[1] However, the specific gene responsible for this statistical association has not yet been identified.

When the first data linking CDKN2A mutations to melanoma risk became available, it was clear that these mutations did not account for all the melanoma tumors in which 9p21 loss of heterozygosity could be demonstrated. In fact, 51% of informative cases had deletions that did not involve somatic mutations in CDKN2A.[95] The specific genes involved have remained elusive but are still under intense investigation.

The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene, otherwise known as the alpha melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor, is located on chromosome 8. Partial loss-of-function mutations are associated not only with red hair, fair skin, and poor tanning, but also with increased skin cancer risk independent of cutaneous pigmentation.[96,97] Although variants in this gene are associated with increased risk for all three types of skin cancer, adding MC1R information to predictions based on age, sex, and cutaneous melanin density offers only a small improvement to risk prediction.[98]

Patients with a personal history of melanoma or dysplastic nevi should be asked to provide information regarding a family history of melanoma and other cancers to detect the presence of familial melanoma. Age at diagnosis in family members and pathologic confirmation, if available, should also be sought. The presence of multiple primary melanomas in the same individual may also provide a clue to an underlying genetic susceptibility. Approximately 30% of affected individuals in hereditary melanoma kindreds have more than one primary melanoma, versus 4% of sporadic melanoma patients.[99] Family histories should be updated regularly; an annual review is often recommended.

For individuals without a personal history of melanoma, several models have been suggested for prediction of melanoma risk. Data from the Nurses' Health Study were used to create a model that included gender, age, family history of melanoma, number of severe sunburns, number of moles larger than 3 mm on the limbs, and hair color.[100] The concordance statistic for this model was 0.62 (95% CI, 0.58–0.65). Another measure of baseline melanoma risk was derived from a case-control study of individuals with and without melanoma in the Philadelphia and San Francisco areas.[101] This model focused on gender, history of blistering sunburn, color of the complexion, number and size of moles, presence of freckling, presence of solar damage to the skin, absence of a tan, age, and geographic area of the United States. Attributable risk with this model was 86% for men and 89% for women. This predictive tool, the Melanoma Risk Assessment Tool, is available online. However, this tool was developed using a cohort of primarily white individuals without a personal or family history of melanoma or nonmelanoma skin cancer. It is designed for use by health professionals, and patients are encouraged to discuss results with their physicians. Additional external validation is appropriate before this tool can be adopted for widespread clinical use.

Clinical testing is available to identify germline mutations in CDKN2A. Multiple centers in the United States and overseas offer sequence analysis of the entire coding region, and a number of centers perform deletion and duplication analysis. For information on genetic testing laboratories, see GeneTests: Laboratory Directory.

Expert opinion regarding testing for germline mutations of CDKN2A in familial melanoma follows two divergent schools of thought. Arguments for genetic testing include the value of identifying a cause of disease for the individual tested, the possibility of improved compliance with prevention protocols in individuals with an identified mutation, and the reassurance of a negative testing result in individuals in a mutation-carrying family. However, a negative test result in a family that does not have a known mutation is uninformative; the genetic cause of disease in these patients must still be identified. It should also be noted that members of CDKN2A mutation–carrying families who do not carry the mutation themselves remain at increased risk of melanoma. At this time, identification of a CDKN2A mutation does not affect the clinical management of the affected patient or family members. Close dermatologic follow-up of these people is indicated, regardless of genetic testing result, and pancreatic cancer screening has unclear utility, as discussed below.[102]

If genetic testing is undertaken in this population, experts suggest that it be performed after complete genetic counseling by a qualified genetics professional who is knowledgeable about the condition.

For information on psychosocial issues related to genetic testing for melanoma risk, refer to the section on Psychosocial Issues in Familial Melanoma.

High-risk individuals, including first-degree family members in melanoma-prone families should be educated about sun safety and warning signs of melanoma. Regular examination of the skin by a health care provider experienced in the evaluation of pigmented lesions is also recommended. One guideline suggests initiation of examination at age 10 years and conducting exams on a semiannual basis until nevi are considered stable, followed by annual examinations.[103] These individuals should also be taught skin self-examination techniques, to be performed on a monthly basis. Observation of lesions may be aided by techniques such as full-body photography and dermoscopy.

Biopsies of skin lesions in the high-risk population should be performed using the same criteria as those used for lesions in the general population. Prophylactic removal of nevi without clinically worrisome characteristics is not recommended. The reasons for this are practical: many individuals in these families have a large number of nevi, and complete removal of them all is not feasible, particularly because new atypical nevi continue to develop. In addition, individuals with increased susceptibility to melanoma may have cancer arise de novo, without a precursor lesion such as a nevus.[104]

At present, chemoprevention of melanoma in high-risk individuals remains an area of active investigation; however, no medications are recommended for melanoma risk reduction at this time.

Level of evidence: 5

Screening for pancreatic cancer remains an area of investigation and controversy for carriers of CDKN2A mutations. At present, no effective means of pancreatic cancer screening is available for the general population; however, serum and radiographic screening measures are under study in high-risk populations. One proposed protocol [105] suggested starting pancreatic screening in high-risk families at age 50 years or 10 years before the youngest age at diagnosis of pancreatic cancer in the family, whichever came first. In this algorithm, asymptomatic patients would be screened annually with serum CA 19-9 and endoscopic ultrasound, whereas symptomatic patients or those with abnormal test results would undergo endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and/or spiral computed tomography (CT) scanning. A study evaluating use of endoscopic ultrasound and ERCP in high-risk families concluded that these procedures were cost-effective in this setting.[106]

The disadvantages of screening include the limitations of available noninvasive testing methods and the risks associated with invasive screening procedures. ERCP is the gold standard for identifying early cancers and precancerous lesions in the pancreas. However, serious complications such as bleeding, pancreatitis, and intestinal perforation can occur with this procedure. Implementation of pancreatic screening in the CDKN2A mutation carrier population is further complicated by the apparent lack of increased incidence of pancreatic cancer in many of these families.

Most experts suggest that pancreatic cancer screening should be considered for CDKN2A mutations carriers only if there is a family history of pancreatic cancer and, even then, only in the context of a clinical trial.

Level of evidence: 5

Screening for melanoma is not recommended by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), although the American Cancer Society, the Skin Cancer Foundation, and the American Academy of Dermatology recommend monthly skin self-examination as well as regular examination by a physician for people older than 50 years or those with multiple melanomas or dysplastic nevus syndrome. USPSTF does not recommend screening because they judge that the evidence for efficacy is not strong. On the other hand, the groups who recommend screening base their support on the logic that screening will find melanomas early in their development and that those melanomas will not progress further. This position is supported by the unusually detailed prognostic information that can be obtained through histopathology examination of primary melanoma tumors, in which a variety of features (lack of invasion through the basement membrane, “thin” cancers (≤ 0.76 mm), absence of vertical growth phase disease, ulceration, and histologic regression) have been solidly linked to favorable prognosis.[107]

The question of whether the lesions found through screening are “programmed” to progress or whether they will grow very slowly and never progress to metastatic disease has not been answered.[108] One study showed that skin self-examination might prevent the formation of melanomas and that skin self-examination was associated with reduced 5-year mortality. The primary preventive effect could be biased by the fact that healthy individuals who participate in studies are somewhat more likely to participate in screening activities.[109] The 63% reduction in mortality observed in that study was not statistically significant. Therefore, until a randomized trial of screening and mortality is undertaken, the utility of general population screening remains uncertain.

Nonetheless, it is well documented that, when a patient is under the care of a dermatologist, his or her second melanoma is diagnosed at a thinner Breslow depth than the index melanoma.[110,111] As survival is inversely correlated with Breslow depth for melanoma, early diagnosis leads to better prognosis.

Level of evidence: 5

Primary prevention for melanoma consists of avoiding intense intermittent exposure to UV radiation, both solar and nonsolar. It should be stressed that the dose-response levels for such exposure are not defined, but that large, sporadic doses of UV radiation on skin are those epidemiologically most associated with later development of melanoma. Sunburn is a marker of that exposure, so that the amount of time spent in the sun should be calculated to avoid sunburn if at all possible.[112]

Primary prevention should stress the need for caution in the sun and protection in the form of clothing, shade and sunscreens when long periods of time are spent outdoors or at times of day when sunburn is likely. High-risk patients should understand that the application of sunscreens should not be used to prolong the time they spend in the sun because UV radiation makes its way through the block over time.[113,114]

Level of evidence: 3aii

As described in the PDQ summary on Melanoma Treatment, therapeutic options range widely from local excision in early melanoma to chemotherapy, radiation, and aggressive management in metastatic melanoma. Our best defense against melanoma as a whole is to encourage sun-protective behaviors, regular skin examinations, and patient skin self-awareness in an effort to decrease high-risk behaviors and optimize early detection of potentially malignant lesions.

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Psychosocial Issues in Familial Melanoma

This section reviews the literature examining risk reduction and early-detection behaviors in individuals with heightened risk for melanoma resulting from their family history of the disease as well as individuals from hereditary families who have been tested for melanoma high-risk mutation status. The review also addresses risk perception and communication in individuals at heightened risk for melanoma.

Few studies have examined motivation and interest in genetic testing for melanoma risk. In general, the findings include: high, but not universal interest in genetic testing; articulated benefits of testing among those at heightened risk; and a relative lack of examination of potential limitations of testing or reasons to forgo testing.

In Australia, a qualitative study (n = 40) found that almost all participants with a strong family history of melanoma were interested in genetic testing.[1,2] Genetic testing was favored by the participants for the following reasons:

• Gaining information about their children's susceptibility to melanoma.
• Having a greater understanding of their own risk.
• Having a desire to advance melanoma research.
• Having hope that tailored information would increase their motivation for sun-protective behavior.
• Perceiving that melanoma is severe.

A Dutch study examined interest in CDKN2A testing (p16-Leiden mutation). Of 510 letters sent to members of 18 p16-Leiden-positive families recruited from the Pigmented Lesions Clinic at the Leiden University Medical Center in the Netherlands, 488 individuals responded by attending clinic for physical examination; an additional 15 family members also accompanied these individuals. Of these, 403 individuals were eligible for genetic counseling, a total of 184 family members followed through with counseling, and 141 of them opted for genetic testing. After the counseling session, 94 individuals returned a completed questionnaire. Older age predicted higher interest in genetic testing; reasons for having genetic testing included learning personal risk (57%) and learning the risk of one's child carrying the mutation (69%). Most participants (88%) felt that genetic testing would make a contribution to diagnostics within their family. However, some individuals (40%) reported that they had not expected to receive risk information concerning pancreatic cancer and half of the participants (49%) reported increased worry about the possibility of developing pancreatic cancer.[3] Finally, in an Arizona qualitative study of 22 individuals with a strong family history of melanoma, none elected genetic testing even though it was provided as an option for them.[4]

Currently, clinical testing for CDKN2A is not recommended outside the research context because most individuals from multiple-case families will not be identified as having a mutation in one of these genes, and because recommendations for those testing positive do not differ for multiple-case family members who test negative, or do not pursue testing.[5,6] Despite these cautions, CDKN2A testing is commercially available, and thus demand for the test will likely increase.[7] Arguments for the availability of genetic testing include that the results of testing could provide psychological security and contribute to enhanced screening and prevention efforts for those testing positive for CDKN2A.[8] Refer to the section on Melanoma Risk Assessment for more information regarding clinical genetic testing for melanoma susceptibility.

A few small studies have examined distress and behavioral factors associated with CDKN2A testing for melanoma. In a Swedish clinic for individuals at high risk for melanoma resulting from dysplastic nevus syndrome, 11 unaffected, untested individuals drawn from families in which a CDKN2A mutation has been identified were examined. Most (9 of 11) reported no worry about increased melanoma risk. In assessments after disclosure of results, there were no increasing trend towards depression, anxiety, or increased melanoma-risk perception by test results, and no systematic change in sun-related habits by test results.[9]

Another study examined behavioral factors associated with CDKN2A carrier status among 64 individuals from two large Utah families in which a CDKN2A mutation had been identified. The individuals received extensive recommendations for sun protection and screening. Questionnaires conducted one month after receipt of genetic test results and recommendations showed increased intention for skin examinations (self-examinations and health care professional examinations), regardless of whether individuals were found to be CDKN2A carriers or noncarriers. Rates of over screening (>1 skin self-examination per mo) also increased in CDKN2A carriers.[10] In a follow-up study one month later with the same sample, CDKN2A carriers showed marginally increased intentions for sun-protective behaviors; CDKN2A noncarriers showed no increase in overall photoprotection but a shift to using sun-protective clothing rather than sun avoidance.[11]

In Australia, 121 individuals with a strong family history of melanoma completed questionnaires prior to genetic counseling and testing.[2] Distress (melanoma-specific distress and general distress) levels were very low in this population. The most important predictors of distress included the following:

• A prior personal history of melanoma.
• The belief that there were family risk implications of getting melanoma (including concerns about their children developing melanoma in the future, and the perceived impact of having a family history of melanoma on their lives in general).
• A preference for receiving highly detailed health information (monitoring style).
• Perceived importance of sun exposure in causing melanoma.
• Not having children.

A number of studies have been conducted examining risk reduction via adoption of sun protection (including the use of sunscreen and protective clothing as well as shade seeking) and early-detection behaviors (including health-care provider screening and skin self-examination) in individuals with a family history of melanoma. Overall, these studies indicate inconsistent adoption and maintenance of these behaviors. Most of these studies have been conducted with clinic-based populations that might be more prone to risk reduction and screening behaviors than those with a similar risk profile in the general population.

In terms of sun protection, in a Swedish population, 87 young adults with dysplastic nevi were surveyed, and 70% estimated their melanoma risk to be equal or lower than that of the Swedish population in general, and one third reported frequent sunbathing behavior.[12] Another study examined 229 first-degree relatives (FDRs) referred by melanoma patients attending clinic appointments; those who were older, female, and had greater confidence in their ability to practice sun-protection were most likely to do so, but the utilization of sun-protective behavior was inconsistent.[13] Another study in the United States examined sun-protective behavior in 100 FDRs of melanoma clinic patients and found that less than one-third of patients use sunscreen routinely when in the sun, and that more regular usage was related to higher education levels, higher self-efficacy for sun protection, and higher perceived melanoma risk. Perceived severity of melanoma and response-efficacy were not related to adoption of sun-protective behaviors.[14]

Another study based in the United Kingdom examined sunburn rates in 170 individuals with a family history of melanoma compared to 140 controls matched to age, sex, and geographical location. Of those with a melanoma family history, 31% reported sunburn in the previous summer (compared to 41% of controls); melanoma families reported better sun-protection behaviors than controls overall. Across controls and those with a family history of melanoma, younger males were more likely to report recent sunburns; also across controls and those with a family history of melanoma, those relatives with atypical mole syndrome, and a belief in their ability to prevent melanoma, showed better sun protection.[15]

There are also a number of studies that have examined early-detection behaviors in individuals at increased risk for melanoma. In a U.S. sample of 404 siblings drawn from a clinic population of melanoma patients, only 42% of individuals had ever seen a dermatologist; 62% had engaged in skin self-examination; 27% had received a physician skin examination; and only 54% routinely used sunscreen. Female gender was related to greater sunscreen use; those older than age 50 were more likely to have received a physician skin examination. Having a dermatologist was strongly related to all three outcomes (skin self-examination, physician examination, and sunscreen use).[16] In a U.S. study of 229 FDRs referred by patients attending clinic, about half (55%) reported ever having a total cutaneous examination, and slightly more (71%) reported ever performing skin self-examination. Common predictors of skin examination (physician and self-examinations) included physician recommendation and low perceived barriers of screening.[13] Interestingly, 14% of the sample had not told their primary care doctor about their sibling’s melanoma diagnosis. One U.S. study showed that half (53%) of FDRs had never received a total cutaneous screening by a physician; only 27% had received a physician recommendation to have a screening. Early detection adherence was related to the following: higher education level; more melanoma risk factors; health-care provider recommendation for screening; perceived risk for melanoma; and perceived severity of melanoma. Interestingly, parents of melanoma patients were less likely to have pursued screening than siblings and children.[17]

In the only intervention study targeting sun protection and screening in siblings of melanoma patients, participants drawn from a clinic population were randomly assigned to an intervention that included telephone messages and tailored print materials about risk reduction and screening recommendations. The usual care condition received standard physician-practice recommendation that patients notify family members about their diagnosis. The intervention group showed improvements in knowledge about melanoma; confidence in seeing a dermatologist, and having a screening examination, and greater improvements in skin self-examination practices compared to control participants after 12 months; both groups showed two-fold increases in physician examinations after 12 months; and there was no change in sunscreen behaviors in either group.[18]

References

1. Kasparian NA, Meiser B, Butow PN, et al.: Anticipated uptake of genetic testing for familial melanoma in an Australian sample: An exploratory study. Psychooncology 16 (1): 69-78, 2007.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
2. Kasparian NA, Butow PN, Meiser B, et al.: High- and average-risk individuals' beliefs about, and perceptions of, malignant melanoma: an Australian perspective. Psychooncology 17 (3): 270-9, 2008.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
3. de Snoo FA, Riedijk SR, van Mil AM, et al.: Genetic testing in familial melanoma: uptake and implications. Psychooncology 17 (8): 790-6, 2008.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
4. Loescher LJ, Crist JD, Siaki LA: Perceived intrafamily melanoma risk communication. Cancer Nurs 32 (3): 203-10, 2009 May-Jun.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
5. de Snoo FA, Bergman W, Gruis NA: Familial melanoma: a complex disorder leading to controversy on DNA testing. Fam Cancer 2 (2): 109-16, 2003.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
6. Kefford RF, Mann GJ: Is there a role for genetic testing in patients with melanoma? Curr Opin Oncol 15 (2): 157-61, 2003.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
7. Hansen CB, Wadge LM, Lowstuter K, et al.: Clinical germline genetic testing for melanoma. Lancet Oncol 5 (5): 314-9, 2004.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
8. Bergman W, Gruis NA: Phenotypic variation in familial melanoma: consequences for predictive DNA testing. Arch Dermatol 143 (4): 525-6, 2007.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
9. Bergenmar M, Hansson J, Brandberg Y: Family members' perceptions of genetic testing for malignant melanoma--a prospective interview study. Eur J Oncol Nurs 13 (2): 74-80, 2009.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
10. Aspinwall LG, Leaf SL, Dola ER, et al.: CDKN2A/p16 genetic test reporting improves early detection intentions and practices in high-risk melanoma families. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17 (6): 1510-9, 2008.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
11. Aspinwall LG, Leaf SL, Kohlmann W, et al.: Patterns of photoprotection following CDKN2A/p16 genetic test reporting and counseling. J Am Acad Dermatol 60 (5): 745-57, 2009.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
12. Bergenmar M, Brandberg Y: Sunbathing and sun-protection behaviors and attitudes of young Swedish adults with hereditary risk for malignant melanoma. Cancer Nurs 24 (5): 341-50, 2001.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
13. Manne S, Fasanella N, Connors J, et al.: Sun protection and skin surveillance practices among relatives of patients with malignant melanoma: prevalence and predictors. Prev Med 39 (1): 36-47, 2004.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
14. Azzarello LM, Dessureault S, Jacobsen PB: Sun-protective behavior among individuals with a family history of melanoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 15 (1): 142-5, 2006.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
15. Newton Bishop JA, Gruis NA: Genetics: what advice for patients who present with a family history of melanoma? Semin Oncol 34 (6): 452-9, 2007.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
16. Geller AC, Emmons K, Brooks DR, et al.: Skin cancer prevention and detection practices among siblings of patients with melanoma. J Am Acad Dermatol 49 (4): 631-8, 2003.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
17. Azzarello LM, Jacobsen PB: Factors influencing participation in cutaneous screening among individuals with a family history of melanoma. J Am Acad Dermatol 56 (3): 398-406, 2007.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
18. Geller AC, Emmons KM, Brooks DR, et al.: A randomized trial to improve early detection and prevention practices among siblings of melanoma patients. Cancer 107 (4): 806-14, 2006.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    

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Changes to This Summary (03/01/2010)

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Purpose of This PDQ Summary

Added text to state that psychosocial issues associated with hereditary skin cancer and genetic testing information has been added to this summary.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Added text to state that the complementation groups associated with xeroderma pigmentosum (XP)/trichothiodystrophy and xeroderma pigmentosum-Cockayne syndrome interact with defects in both transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair and global genomic nucleotide excision repair, whereas the other XP complementation groups have defects only in global genomic nucleotide excision repair (cited Lambert et al. as reference 55).

Added Bugreev et al. as reference 115.

Added Pirzio et al. as reference 133.

Added text to state that dose reduction of 30% to 50% has been recommended for systemic chemotherapeutic agents for patients with XP and unresectable squamous cell carcinoma (cited Sarasin as reference 142).

Melanoma

Added text to state that partial loss-of-function mutations are associated not only with red hair, fair skin, and poor tanning, but also with increased skin-cancer risk independent of cutaneous pigmentation (cited Scherer et al. as reference 97).

Psychosocial Issues in Familial Melanoma

Added this new section.

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