Average Risk
        Standard treatment options
        Treatment options under clinical evaluation
High Risk
        Standard treatment options
        Treatment options under clinical evaluation
Children Aged 3 Years and Younger
        Standard treatment options
        Treatment options under clinical evaluation
Current Clinical Trials

Note: Some citations in the text of this section are followed by a level of evidence. The PDQ editorial boards use a formal ranking system to help the reader judge the strength of evidence linked to the reported results of a therapeutic strategy. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Levels of Evidence for more information.)

Children with medulloblastoma are stratified into average-risk and poor-risk subsets. Owing to concerns about the long-term neurocognitive sequelae of whole-brain radiation therapy on the developing brain, radiation therapy for younger children has often been delayed or eliminated. Children younger than 3 years and sometimes as old as 5 years have not received the same treatment as older patients.

In all subgroups of patients, surgery is the initial means of therapy, and maximal tumor resection is the goal of treatment. Postsurgical treatment has diverged, to some degree, on the basis of stratification and age of the patient.

The traditional postsurgical treatment for patients with average-risk medulloblastoma has been 54 Gy to 55 Gy of radiation therapy to the posterior fossa and 36 Gy to the entire neuroaxis (i.e., the whole brain and spine).[1-3] With radiation therapy alone, 5-year event-free survival (EFS) ranges between 50% and 65% in those with nondisseminated disease.[1-3] While the standard boost in medulloblastoma is the entire posterior fossa, patterns of failure data suggest that radiation therapy to the tumor bed instead of the entire posterior fossa would be equally effective and possibly associated with reduced toxicity.[4,5] The minimal dose of craniospinal radiation needed for disease control is unknown. Attempts to lower the dose of craniospinal radiation therapy to 23.4 Gy without chemotherapy have resulted in an increased incidence of isolated leptomeningeal relapse.[6] Radiation therapy and chemotherapy given during and after radiation therapy has demonstrated 5-year EFS rates of 70% to 85%.[1-3] Chemotherapy is now a standard component of the treatment of children with average-risk medulloblastoma; a variety of chemotherapeutic regimens has been successfully used, including the combination of cisplatin, lomustine, and vincristine.[1,2,7,8] A lower radiation dose of 23.4 Gy to the neuroaxis when coupled with chemotherapy has been shown to result in disease control in up to 80% of patients and may decrease the severity of long-term neurocognitive sequelae.[8-10]

Long-term survivors who were prepubertal at the time of diagnosis are at high risk for growth failure due to radiation-related hypothalamic failure as well as effects of radiation on spinal growth. Lower doses of craniospinal radiation therapy may decrease the incidence of hypothalamic dysfunction, but this has not yet been proven. Growth hormone replacement therapy has not been shown to increase the likelihood of disease relapse.[11]

The Children’s Oncology Group (COG) phase III trial, COG-ACNS0331, is randomly assigning children between the ages of 3 years and 8 years to receive either 18 Gy or 24 Gy of craniospinal radiation; and randomly assigning children between the ages of 3 years and 21 years to receive either conformal tumor site radiation therapy or posterior fossa radiation therapy. Patients with anaplastic medulloblastoma are not eligible. In this study, children received weekly vincristine during radiation therapy and lomustine, vincristine, cisplatinum, etoposide, and cyclophosphamide after radiation therapy.

In high-risk patients, numerous studies have demonstrated that multimodality therapy improves the duration of disease control and overall disease-free survival (DFS).[12-14] Studies show that approximately 50% to 60% of patients with high-risk diseases will experience long-term disease control.[1,15] The drugs that have been found to be useful in children with average-risk disease are the same drugs that have been used extensively in children with poor-risk disease, including cisplatin, lomustine, cyclophosphamide, etoposide, and vincristine.

The COG phase III trial for children older than 3 years, COG-ACNS0332, is evaluating the efficacy of adding carboplatin to radiation therapy with vincristine, followed by maintenance chemotherapy with isotretinoin. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.

The treatment of children younger than 3 years with newly-diagnosed medulloblastoma continues to evolve. Due to concerns over the likely deleterious effects of craniospinal radiation on the immature nervous system, therapeutic approaches have attempted to delay and, in some cases, avoid the use of craniospinal radiation therapy. Results have been variable and comparison across studies has been difficult due to differences in drug regimens used and the utilization in some studies , but not all, of craniospinal and local boost radiotherapy at the end of chemotherapy or when children reached age 3 years. Five-year, DFS rates have ranged between 30% and 70% with the majority of long-term survivors successfully treated with chemotherapy alone, having nondisseminated, totally resected tumors.[16-18] The histological finding of desmoplasia has been found to connote a better prognosis and preliminary results also suggest that specific molecular findings, such as elevated TrkC expression and low MYCC expression may also identify subsets of patients who are more likely to be successfully treated with chemotherapy alone.[18-21]

Therapies have included the use of multiagent chemotherapeutic approaches, including drugs such as cyclophosphamide, etoposide, cisplatin, and vincristine, with or without concomitant high-dose intravenous methotrexate and/or intrathecal methotrexate or mafosfamide.[16-18,22-24] Another approach that utilized multiagent chemotherapy followed by radiation therapy to the primary tumor site also resulted in disease control in nearly 70% of patients with nondisseminated disease; again disease control was better in those patients with desmoplastic histology.[25] Results of trials utilizing higher-dose chemotherapeutic regimens supported by autologous stem cell rescue or peripheral stem cell rescue have also demonstrated that a subgroup of patients with medulloblastoma who are younger than 3 years at the time of diagnosis can be treated with chemotherapy alone.[26,27][Level of evidence: 2A]

In contrast to those children with standard-risk disease, children with disseminated disease at presentation fare poorly with less than 30% of infants and young children surviving despite the use of higher-dose therapy supplemented with methotrexate, either intravenously or intrathecally, and higher-dose chemotherapeutic regimens supported with stem cell rescue. In patients with disseminated disease, there is no consensus on when and how much radiotherapy should be given and at what age radiotherapy should be instituted.[16-18]

The COG trial, COG-ACNS0334, is open for children aged 3 years or younger at diagnosis with high-risk disease, which is defined as those with disseminated and/or partially resected tumors. This study is evaluating chemotherapy as given in the completed COG study COG-99703, which used multiagent chemotherapy followed by thiotepa-based higher-dose chemotherapy and peripheral stem cell rescue, and is randomizing patients to treatment with or without intravenous high-dose methotrexate. Patients with cortical primitive neuroectodermal tumors or pineoblastomas are also eligible.

An alternative treatment strategy under clinical evaluation is the Head Start III trial (CHLA-HEAD-START-IIII) which uses combination chemotherapy with or without etoposide followed by an autologous stem cell transplant to treat children younger than 10 years with newly diagnosed brain tumors.

Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with childhood medulloblastoma. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI Web site.

References

1. Packer RJ, Sutton LN, Elterman R, et al.: Outcome for children with medulloblastoma treated with radiation and cisplatin, CCNU, and vincristine chemotherapy. J Neurosurg 81 (5): 690-8, 1994.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
2. Bailey CC, Gnekow A, Wellek S, et al.: Prospective randomised trial of chemotherapy given before radiotherapy in childhood medulloblastoma. International Society of Paediatric Oncology (SIOP) and the (German) Society of Paediatric Oncology (GPO): SIOP II. Med Pediatr Oncol 25 (3): 166-78, 1995.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
3. Kortmann RD, Kühl J, Timmermann B, et al.: Postoperative neoadjuvant chemotherapy before radiotherapy as compared to immediate radiotherapy followed by maintenance chemotherapy in the treatment of medulloblastoma in childhood: results of the German prospective randomized trial HIT '91. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 46 (2): 269-79, 2000.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
4. Fukunaga-Johnson N, Sandler HM, Marsh R, et al.: The use of 3D conformal radiotherapy (3D CRT) to spare the cochlea in patients with medulloblastoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 41 (1): 77-82, 1998.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
5. Huang E, Teh BS, Strother DR, et al.: Intensity-modulated radiation therapy for pediatric medulloblastoma: early report on the reduction of ototoxicity. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 52 (3): 599-605, 2002.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
6. Thomas PR, Deutsch M, Kepner JL, et al.: Low-stage medulloblastoma: final analysis of trial comparing standard-dose with reduced-dose neuraxis irradiation. J Clin Oncol 18 (16): 3004-11, 2000.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
7. Jenkin D: Long-term survival of children with brain tumors. Oncology (Huntingt) 10 (5): 715-9; discussion 720, 722, 728, 1996.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
8. Packer RJ, Goldwein J, Nicholson HS, et al.: Treatment of children with medulloblastomas with reduced-dose craniospinal radiation therapy and adjuvant chemotherapy: A Children's Cancer Group Study. J Clin Oncol 17 (7): 2127-36, 1999.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
9. Oyharcabal-Bourden V, Kalifa C, Gentet JC, et al.: Standard-risk medulloblastoma treated by adjuvant chemotherapy followed by reduced-dose craniospinal radiation therapy: a French Society of Pediatric Oncology Study. J Clin Oncol 23 (21): 4726-34, 2005.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
10. Merchant TE, Kun LE, Krasin MJ, et al.: Multi-institution prospective trial of reduced-dose craniospinal irradiation (23.4 Gy) followed by conformal posterior fossa (36 Gy) and primary site irradiation (55.8 Gy) and dose-intensive chemotherapy for average-risk medulloblastoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 70 (3): 782-7, 2008.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
11. Packer RJ, Boyett JM, Janss AJ, et al.: Growth hormone replacement therapy in children with medulloblastoma: use and effect on tumor control. J Clin Oncol 19 (2): 480-7, 2001.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
12. Gajjar A, Chintagumpala M, Ashley D, et al.: Risk-adapted craniospinal radiotherapy followed by high-dose chemotherapy and stem-cell rescue in children with newly diagnosed medulloblastoma (St Jude Medulloblastoma-96): long-term results from a prospective, multicentre trial. Lancet Oncol 7 (10): 813-20, 2006.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
13. Verlooy J, Mosseri V, Bracard S, et al.: Treatment of high risk medulloblastomas in children above the age of 3 years: a SFOP study. Eur J Cancer 42 (17): 3004-14, 2006.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
14. Gandola L, Massimino M, Cefalo G, et al.: Hyperfractionated accelerated radiotherapy in the Milan strategy for metastatic medulloblastoma. J Clin Oncol 27 (4): 566-71, 2009.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
15. Evans AE, Jenkin RD, Sposto R, et al.: The treatment of medulloblastoma. Results of a prospective randomized trial of radiation therapy with and without CCNU, vincristine, and prednisone. J Neurosurg 72 (4): 572-82, 1990.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
16. Geyer JR, Sposto R, Jennings M, et al.: Multiagent chemotherapy and deferred radiotherapy in infants with malignant brain tumors: a report from the Children's Cancer Group. J Clin Oncol 23 (30): 7621-31, 2005.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
17. Grill J, Sainte-Rose C, Jouvet A, et al.: Treatment of medulloblastoma with postoperative chemotherapy alone: an SFOP prospective trial in young children. Lancet Oncol 6 (8): 573-80, 2005.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
18. Rutkowski S, Bode U, Deinlein F, et al.: Treatment of early childhood medulloblastoma by postoperative chemotherapy alone. N Engl J Med 352 (10): 978-86, 2005.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
19. Giangaspero F, Perilongo G, Fondelli MP, et al.: Medulloblastoma with extensive nodularity: a variant with favorable prognosis. J Neurosurg 91 (6): 971-7, 1999.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
20. Eberhart CG, Kratz J, Wang Y, et al.: Histopathological and molecular prognostic markers in medulloblastoma: c-myc, N-myc, TrkC, and anaplasia. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 63 (5): 441-9, 2004.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
21. Grotzer MA, Hogarty MD, Janss AJ, et al.: MYC messenger RNA expression predicts survival outcome in childhood primitive neuroectodermal tumor/medulloblastoma. Clin Cancer Res 7 (8): 2425-33, 2001.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
22. Duffner PK, Horowitz ME, Krischer JP, et al.: Postoperative chemotherapy and delayed radiation in children less than three years of age with malignant brain tumors. N Engl J Med 328 (24): 1725-31, 1993.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
23. Ater JL, van Eys J, Woo SY, et al.: MOPP chemotherapy without irradiation as primary postsurgical therapy for brain tumors in infants and young children. J Neurooncol 32 (3): 243-52, 1997.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
24. Blaney SM, Boyett J, Friedman H, et al.: Phase I clinical trial of mafosfamide in infants and children aged 3 years or younger with newly diagnosed embryonal tumors: a Pediatric Brain Tumor Consortium study (PBTC-001). J Clin Oncol 23 (3): 525-31, 2005.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
25. Sanders R, Schaiquevich P, Broniscer A: Methotrexate pharmacokinetics in children less than 3 years of age with embryonal brain tumors. [Abstract] Neuro-Oncology 10 (3): A-INF10, 436-7, 2008. 
    
    
26. Chi SN, Gardner SL, Levy AS, et al.: Feasibility and response to induction chemotherapy intensified with high-dose methotrexate for young children with newly diagnosed high-risk disseminated medulloblastoma. J Clin Oncol 22 (24): 4881-7, 2004.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
27. Dhall G, Grodman H, Ji L, et al.: Outcome of children less than three years old at diagnosis with non-metastatic medulloblastoma treated with chemotherapy on the "Head Start" I and II protocols. Pediatr Blood Cancer 50 (6): 1169-75, 2008.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    

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