Stage I and II Pancreatic Cancer

Current Clinical Trials

Note: Some citations in the text of this section are followed by a level of evidence. The PDQ editorial boards use a formal ranking system to help the reader judge the strength of evidence linked to the reported results of a therapeutic strategy. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Levels of Evidence for more information.)

Approximately 20% of patients present with pancreatic cancer amenable to local surgical resection with operative mortality rates of approximately 1% to 16%.[1-5] Using information from the Medicare claims database, a national cohort study of more than 7,000 patients undergoing pancreaticoduodenectomy between 1992 and 1995 revealed higher in-hospital mortality rates at low-volume hospitals (<1 pancreaticoduodenectomy per year) versus high-volume hospitals (>5 per year) (16% vs. 4%, respectively, P < .01).[1] Complete resection can yield 5-year survival rates of 18% to 24%, but ultimate control remains poor because of the high incidence of both local and distant tumor recurrence.[6-8][Level of evidence: 3iA] The role of postoperative therapy (chemotherapy with or without chemoradiation therapy [CRT]) in the management of this disease remains controversial because much of the randomized clinical trial data available are statistically underpowered and provide conflicting results.[9-13]

Three phase III trials prior to 2000 examined the potential overall survival (OS) benefit of postoperative adjuvant 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)–based CRT. A small randomized trial conducted by the Gastrointestinal Study Group (GITSG) in 1985 demonstrated a significant but modest improvement in median-term and long-term survival over resection alone with postoperative bolus 5-FU and regional split course radiation given at a dose of 40 Gy.[9][Level of evidence: 1iiA];[10][Level of evidence: 2A] An attempt by the European Organization for the Research and Treatment of Cancer to reproduce the results of the GITSG trial failed to confirm a significant benefit for adjuvant CRT over resection alone;[11][Level of evidence: 1iiA] however, this trial treated patients with pancreatic as well as periampullary cancers (with a potential better prognosis). A subset analysis of the patients with primary pancreatic tumors indicated a trend towards improved median, 2-year, and 5-year OS with adjuvant therapy compared with surgery alone (17.1 months, 37% and 20% vs. 12.6 months, 23% and 10%, P = .09 for median survival). An updated analysis of a subsequent European Study for Pancreatic Cancer (ESPAC 1) trial examined only patients who underwent strict randomization following pancreatic resection. The patients were assigned to one of four groups (observation, bolus 5-FU chemotherapy, bolus 5-FU CRT, or CRT followed by additional chemotherapy). With a 2 × 2 factorial design reported, at a median follow-up of 47 months, a median survival benefit was observed for only the patients who received postoperative 5-FU chemotherapy. These results were difficult to interpret, however, because of a high rate of protocol nonadherence and the lack of a separate analysis for each of the four groups in the 2 × 2 design.[12-14][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

The United States Gastrointestinal Intergroup has reported the results of a randomized phase III trial (RTOG-9704) that included 451 patients with resected pancreatic cancers who were assigned to receive either postoperative infusional 5-FU plus infusional 5-FU and concurrent radiation or adjuvant gemcitabine plus infusional 5-FU and concurrent radiation.[15] The primary endpoints were OS for all patients and OS for patients with pancreatic head cancers. The median OS for the 388 patients with pancreatic head tumors was 20.5 months in the gemcitabine arm versus 16.9 months in the 5-FU arm; 3-year survival was 31% versus 22%, respectively (P = .09; hazard ratio [HR] = 0.82; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.65–1.03). OS for all patients was not reported in the publication; however, median survival estimates extrapolated from the presented survival curve were approximately 19 months for the gemcitabine group and 17 months for the 5-FU group.[15][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

Results have also been reported from CONKO-001, a multicenter phase III trial of 368 patients with resected pancreatic cancer who were randomly assigned to six cycles of adjuvant gemcitabine versus observation.[16] In contrast to the previous trials, the primary endpoint was disease-free survival (DFS). Median DFS was 13.4 months in the gemcitabine arm (95% CI, 11.4–15.3) and 6.9 months in the observation group (95% CI, 6.1–7.8; P < .001). However, there was no significant difference in OS between the gemcitabine arm (median 22.1 months, 95% CI, 18.4–25.8) and the control group (median 20.2 months, 95% CI, 17–23.4).[16][Level of evidence: 1iiDii] At the American Society of Clinical Oncology annual meeting in 2008, the investigators, with longer follow-up, reported a significant improvement in OS that favored gemcitabine (median survival 22.8 months vs. 20.2 months, P = .005; 5-year survival 21% vs. 9%).[17]

The ESPAC-3 (NCT00058201) trial randomly assigned 1,088 patients who had undergone complete macroscopic resection to either 6 months of 5-FU (425 mg/m²) and folinic acid (20 mg/m²) on days 1 to 5 every 28 days or 6 months of gemcitabine (1,000 mg/m²) on days 1, 8, and 15 every 28 days.[18] Median OS was 23.0 months (95% CI, 21.1– 25.0) for patients treated with 5-FU plus folinic acid and 23.6 months (95% CI, 21.4–26.4) for those treated with gemcitabine (HR = 0.94, 95% CI, 0.81–1.08, P = .39).[18][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

Additional trials are still warranted to determine more effective adjuvant therapy for this disease.

Standard treatment options:

1. Radical pancreatic resection:
   • Whipple procedure (pancreaticoduodenal resection).
   • Total pancreatectomy when necessary for adequate margins.
   • Distal pancreatectomy for tumors of the body and tail of the pancreas.[19,20]

2. Radical pancreatic resection with postoperative chemotherapy (gemcitabine or 5-FU/folinic acid).[18]

3. Radical pancreatic resection with postoperative 5-FU chemotherapy and radiation therapy.[9-13]

Treatment options under clinical evaluation:

1. Gemcitabine and capecitabine (ESPAC-4).
2. Gemcitabine and erlotinib (CONKO-005).
3. Gemcitabine and erlotinib with or without 5-FU/capecitabine-based chemoradiation (RTOG-0848).
4. Preoperative chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage I pancreatic cancer and stage II pancreatic cancer. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI Web site.

References

1. Birkmeyer JD, Finlayson SR, Tosteson AN, et al.: Effect of hospital volume on in-hospital mortality with pancreaticoduodenectomy. Surgery 125 (3): 250-6, 1999.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
2. Cameron JL, Pitt HA, Yeo CJ, et al.: One hundred and forty-five consecutive pancreaticoduodenectomies without mortality. Ann Surg 217 (5): 430-5; discussion 435-8, 1993.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
3. Spanknebel K, Conlon KC: Advances in the surgical management of pancreatic cancer. Cancer J 7 (4): 312-23, 2001 Jul-Aug.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
4. Balcom JH 4th, Rattner DW, Warshaw AL, et al.: Ten-year experience with 733 pancreatic resections: changing indications, older patients, and decreasing length of hospitalization. Arch Surg 136 (4): 391-8, 2001.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
5. Sohn TA, Yeo CJ, Cameron JL, et al.: Resected adenocarcinoma of the pancreas-616 patients: results, outcomes, and prognostic indicators. J Gastrointest Surg 4 (6): 567-79, 2000 Nov-Dec.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
6. Cameron JL, Crist DW, Sitzmann JV, et al.: Factors influencing survival after pancreaticoduodenectomy for pancreatic cancer. Am J Surg 161 (1): 120-4; discussion 124-5, 1991.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
7. Yeo CJ, Cameron JL, Lillemoe KD, et al.: Pancreaticoduodenectomy for cancer of the head of the pancreas. 201 patients. Ann Surg 221 (6): 721-31; discussion 731-3, 1995.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
8. Yeo CJ, Abrams RA, Grochow LB, et al.: Pancreaticoduodenectomy for pancreatic adenocarcinoma: postoperative adjuvant chemoradiation improves survival. A prospective, single-institution experience. Ann Surg 225 (5): 621-33; discussion 633-6, 1997.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
9. Further evidence of effective adjuvant combined radiation and chemotherapy following curative resection of pancreatic cancer. Gastrointestinal Tumor Study Group. Cancer 59 (12): 2006-10, 1987.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
10. Kalser MH, Ellenberg SS: Pancreatic cancer. Adjuvant combined radiation and chemotherapy following curative resection. Arch Surg 120 (8): 899-903, 1985.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
11. Klinkenbijl JH, Jeekel J, Sahmoud T, et al.: Adjuvant radiotherapy and 5-fluorouracil after curative resection of cancer of the pancreas and periampullary region: phase III trial of the EORTC gastrointestinal tract cancer cooperative group. Ann Surg 230 (6): 776-82; discussion 782-4, 1999.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
12. Neoptolemos JP, Dunn JA, Stocken DD, et al.: Adjuvant chemoradiotherapy and chemotherapy in resectable pancreatic cancer: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 358 (9293): 1576-85, 2001.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
13. Neoptolemos JP, Stocken DD, Friess H, et al.: A randomized trial of chemoradiotherapy and chemotherapy after resection of pancreatic cancer. N Engl J Med 350 (12): 1200-10, 2004.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
14. Choti MA: Adjuvant therapy for pancreatic cancer--the debate continues. N Engl J Med 350 (12): 1249-51, 2004.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
15. Regine WF, Winter KA, Abrams RA, et al.: Fluorouracil vs gemcitabine chemotherapy before and after fluorouracil-based chemoradiation following resection of pancreatic adenocarcinoma: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 299 (9): 1019-26, 2008.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
16. Oettle H, Post S, Neuhaus P, et al.: Adjuvant chemotherapy with gemcitabine vs observation in patients undergoing curative-intent resection of pancreatic cancer: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 297 (3): 267-77, 2007.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
17. Neuhaus P, Riess H, Post S, et al.: CONKO-001: final results of the randomized, prospective, multicenter phase III trial of adjuvant chemotherapy with gemcitabine versus observation in patients with resected pancreatic cancer (PC). [Abstract] J Clin Oncol 26 (Suppl 15): A-LBA4504, 2008. 
    
    
18. Neoptolemos JP, Stocken DD, Bassi C, et al.: Adjuvant chemotherapy with fluorouracil plus folinic acid vs gemcitabine following pancreatic cancer resection: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 304 (10): 1073-81, 2010.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
19. Dalton RR, Sarr MG, van Heerden JA, et al.: Carcinoma of the body and tail of the pancreas: is curative resection justified? Surgery 111 (5): 489-94, 1992.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
20. Brennan MF, Moccia RD, Klimstra D: Management of adenocarcinoma of the body and tail of the pancreas. Ann Surg 223 (5): 506-11; discussion 511-2, 1996.  [PUBMED Abstract]