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Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment (PDQ®)

Patient Version
Last Modified: 02/09/2012

General Information About Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma

Key Points for This Section


Childhood Hodgkin lymphoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lymph system.

Childhood Hodgkin lymphoma is a type of cancer that develops in the lymph system, part of the body's immune system. The lymph system is made up of the following:

  • Lymph: Colorless, watery fluid that travels through the lymph system and carries white blood cells called lymphocytes. Lymphocytes protect the body against infections and the growth of tumors.
  • Lymph vessels: A network of thin tubes that collect lymph from different parts of the body and return it to the bloodstream.
  • Lymph nodes: Small, bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and store white blood cells that help fight infection and disease. Lymph nodes are located along the network of lymph vessels found throughout the body. Clusters of lymph nodes are found in the underarm, pelvis, neck, abdomen, and groin.
  • Spleen: An organ that makes lymphocytes, filters the blood, stores blood cells, and destroys old blood cells. The spleen is on the left side of the abdomen near the stomach.
  • Thymus: An organ in which lymphocytes grow and multiply. The thymus is in the chest behind the breastbone.
  • Tonsils: Two small masses of lymph tissue at the back of the throat. The tonsils make lymphocytes.
  • Bone marrow: The soft, spongy tissue in the center of large bones. Bone marrow makes white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.
Enlarge 1
Lymph system; drawing shows the lymph vessels and lymph organs including the lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, spleen, and bone marrow. One inset shows the inside structure of a lymph node and the attached lymph vessels with arrows showing how the lymph (clear fluid) moves into and out of the lymph node. Another inset shows a close up of bone marrow with blood cells. 1
Anatomy of the lymph system, showing the lymph vessels and lymph organs including lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, spleen, and bone marrow. Lymph (clear fluid) and lymphocytes travel through the lymph vessels and into the lymph nodes where the lymphocytes destroy harmful substances. The lymph enters the blood through a large vein near the heart.

Because lymph tissue is found throughout the body, Hodgkin lymphoma can start in almost any part of the body and spread to almost any tissue or organ in the body.

Lymphomas are divided into two general types: Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. (See the PDQ summary on Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment 2 for more information.)

Hodgkin lymphoma can occur in both children and adults; however, treatment for children may be different than treatment for adults. (See the PDQ summary on Adult Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment 3 for more information.)

There are two types of childhood Hodgkin lymphoma.

The two types of childhood Hodgkin lymphoma are:

Classical Hodgkin lymphoma is divided into four subtypes, based on how the cancer cells look under a microscope:

  • Lymphocyte-rich classical Hodgkin lymphoma.
  • Nodular sclerosis Hodgkin lymphoma.
  • Mixed cellularity Hodgkin lymphoma.
  • Lymphocyte-depleted Hodgkin lymphoma.

Age, gender, and Epstein-Barr virus infection can affect the risk of developing childhood Hodgkin lymphoma.

Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. People who think they may be at risk should discuss this with their doctor. Risk factors for childhood Hodgkin lymphoma include the following:

  • Being between the ages of 15 and 19. At these ages, Hodgkin lymphoma is slightly more common in girls than in boys. In children younger than 5 years, it is more common in boys than in girls.
  • Being infected with the Epstein-Barr virus.
  • Having a brother or sister with Hodgkin lymphoma.

Possible signs of childhood Hodgkin lymphoma include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, and weight loss.

These and other symptoms may be caused by childhood Hodgkin lymphoma or by other conditions. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:

  • Painless, swollen lymph nodes in the neck, chest, underarm, or groin.
  • Fever.
  • Night sweats.
  • Weight loss for no known reason.
  • Itchy skin.

Tests that examine the lymph system are used to detect (find) and diagnose childhood Hodgkin lymphoma.

The following tests and procedures may be used:

  • Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient's health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
  • Lymph node biopsy: The removal of all or part of a lymph node. One of the following types of biopsies may be done:

    A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells, especially Reed-Sternberg cells. Reed-Sternberg cells are common in classical Hodgkin lymphoma.

    Enlarge 4
    Reed-Sternberg cell; photograph shows normal lymphocytes compared with a Reed-Sternberg cell. 4
    Reed-Sternberg cell. Reed-Sternberg cells are large, abnormal lymphocytes that may contain more than one nucleus. These cells are found in Hodgkin lymphoma.
  • Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
  • CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
  • Complete blood count (CBC): A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following:
    • The number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
    • The amount of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen) in the red blood cells.
    • The portion of the blood sample made up of red blood cells.
    Enlarge 5
    Complete blood count (CBC); left panel shows blood being drawn from a vein on the inside of the elbow using a tube attached to a syringe; right panel shows a laboratory test tube with blood cells separated into layers: plasma, white blood cells, platelets, and red blood cells. 5
    Complete blood count (CBC). Blood is collected by inserting a needle into a vein and allowing the blood to flow into a tube. The blood sample is sent to the laboratory and the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are counted. The CBC is used to test for, diagnose, and monitor many different conditions.
  • Sedimentation rate: A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the rate at which the red blood cells settle to the bottom of the test tube.
  • Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that makes it.
  • PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do.
  • Immunophenotyping: A test in which the cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are looked at under a microscope to find out the type of malignant (cancerous) lymphocytes that are causing the lymphoma.

Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.

The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:

  • The stage of the cancer.
  • The size of the tumor and how quickly it shrinks after initial treatment.
  • The patient's symptoms when diagnosed.
  • Certain features of the cancer cells.
  • Whether the cancer is newly diagnosed, does not respond to initial treatment, or has recurred (come back).

The treatment options also depend on:

Most children and adolescents with newly diagnosed Hodgkin lymphoma can be cured.

Stages of Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma

Key Points for This Section


After childhood Hodgkin lymphoma has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the lymph system or to other parts of the body.

The process used to find out if cancer has spread within the lymph system or to other parts of the body is called staging. The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. Treatment is based on the stage and other factors that affect prognosis. The following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process:

  • MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI). An MRI of the abdomen and pelvis may be done.
  • PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do.
  • Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy: The removal of bone marrow, blood, and a small piece of bone by inserting a hollow needle into the hipbone or breastbone. A pathologist views the bone marrow, blood, and bone under a microscope to look for abnormal cells.
    Enlarge 6
    Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy; drawing shows a patient lying face down on a table and a Jamshidi needle (a long, hollow needle) being inserted into the hip bone. Inset shows the Jamshidi needle being inserted through the skin into the bone marrow of the hip bone. 6
    Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy. After a small area of skin is numbed, a Jamshidi needle (a long, hollow needle) is inserted into the patient’s hip bone. Samples of blood, bone, and bone marrow are removed for examination under a microscope.

There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.

The three ways that cancer spreads in the body are:

  • Through tissue. Cancer invades the surrounding normal tissue.
  • Through the lymph system. Cancer invades the lymph system and travels through the lymph vessels to other places in the body.
  • Through the blood. Cancer invades the veins and capillaries and travels through the blood to other places in the body.

When cancer cells break away from the primary (original) tumor and travel through the lymph or blood to other places in the body, another (secondary) tumor may form. This process is called metastasis. The secondary (metastatic) tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor. For example, if breast cancer spreads to the bones, the cancer cells in the bones are actually breast cancer cells. The disease is metastatic breast cancer, not bone cancer.

Stages of childhood Hodgkin lymphoma may include A, B, E, and S.

Childhood Hodgkin lymphoma may be described as follows:

  • A: The patient has no symptoms.
  • B: The patient has symptoms such as fever, weight loss, or night sweats.
  • E: Cancer is found in an organ or tissue that is not part of the lymph system but which may be next to an involved area of the lymph system.
  • S: Cancer is found in the spleen.

The following stages are used for childhood Hodgkin lymphoma:

Stage I

Enlarge 7
Stage I childhood Hodgkin lymphoma; drawing shows cancer in one lymph node group above the diaphragm. An inset shows a lymph node with a lymph vessel, an artery, and a vein. Lymphoma cells containing cancer are shown in the lymph node. 7
Stage I childhood Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer is found in one or more lymph nodes in one lymph node group. In stage IE (not shown), cancer is found outside the lymph nodes in one organ or area.

Stage I is divided into stage I and stage IE.

Stage II

Stage II is divided into stage II and stage IIE.

  • Enlarge 8
    Stage II childhood Hodgkin lymphoma; drawing shows cancer in lymph node groups above and below the diaphragm. An inset shows a lymph node with a lymph vessel, an artery, and a vein. Lymphoma cells containing cancer are shown in the lymph node. 8
    Stage II childhood Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer is found in two or more lymph node groups, and both are either above (a) or below (b) the diaphragm.
    Stage II: Cancer is found in two or more lymph node groups above or below the diaphragm (the thin muscle below the lungs that helps breathing and separates the chest from the abdomen).
  • Enlarge 9
    Stage IIE childhood Hodgkin lymphoma; drawing shows cancer in one lymph node group above the diaphragm and in the left lung. An inset shows a lymph node with a lymph vessel, an artery, and a vein. Lymphoma cells containing cancer are shown in the lymph node. 9
    Stage IIE childhood Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer is found in one or more lymph node groups above or below the diaphragm and outside the lymph nodes in a nearby organ or area (a).
    Stage IIE: Cancer is found in one or more lymph node groups above or below the diaphragm and outside the lymph nodes in a nearby organ or area.

Stage III

Enlarge 10
Stage III childhood Hodgkin lymphoma; drawing shows cancer in lymph node groups above and below the diaphragm, in the left lung, and in the spleen. An inset shows a lymph node with a lymph vessel, an artery, and a vein. Lymphoma cells containing cancer are shown in the lymph node. 10
Stage III childhood Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer is found in one or more lymph node groups above and below the diaphragm (a). In stage IIIE, cancer is found in lymph node groups above and below the diaphragm and outside the lymph nodes in a nearby organ or area (b). In stage IIIS, cancer is found in lymph node groups above and below the diaphragm (a) and in the spleen (c). In stage IIIS plus E, cancer is found in lymph node groups above and below the diaphragm, outside the lymph nodes in a nearby organ or area (b), and in the spleen (c).

Stage III is divided into stage III, stage IIIE, stage IIIS, and stage IIIE+S.

Stage IV

Enlarge 11
Stage IV childhood Hodgkin lymphoma; drawing shows cancer in the liver, the left lung, and in one lymph node group below the diaphragm. The brain and pleura are also shown. One inset shows cancer spreading through lymph nodes and lymph vessels to other parts of the body. Lymphoma cells containing cancer are shown inside one lymph node. Another inset shows cancer cells in the bone marrow. 11
Stage IV childhood Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer is found outside the lymph nodes throughout one or more organs (a); or outside the lymph nodes in one organ and has spread to lymph nodes far away from that organ (b); or in the lung, liver, or bone marrow.

In stage IV, the cancer:

  • is found outside the lymph nodes throughout one or more organs, and may be in lymph nodes near those organs; or
  • is found outside the lymph nodes in one organ and has spread to lymph nodes far away from that organ; or
  • is found in the lung, liver, or bone marrow.

Untreated, classical Hodgkin lymphoma is divided into risk groups.

Untreated, classical childhood Hodgkin lymphoma is divided into risk groups based on the bulk of the tumor (tumors that are 5 centimeters or larger are considered "bulky") and whether the patient has "b" symptoms (fever, weight loss, or night sweats). Treatment is based on the risk group.

  • Low-risk disease:
    • Patients with stage I or stage II disease; and
    • No bulky tumors or "b" symptoms.
  • Intermediate-risk disease:
    • Patients with stage I or stage II disease, with bulky tumors, or with "b" symptoms; or
    • Patients with stage III or stage IV disease without "b" symptoms.
  • High-risk disease: Patients with stage III or stage IV disease with "b" symptoms.

After initial chemotherapy, a PET scan may be done.

A PET scan may be done after one or two cycles of chemotherapy and again after chemotherapy ends, to find out how well the chemotherapy worked.

Primary Progressive/Recurrent Hodgkin Lymphoma in Children and Adolescents

Primary progressive Hodgkin lymphoma is lymphoma that continues to grow or spread during treatment. Recurrent Hodgkin lymphoma is cancer that has recurred (come back) after it has been treated. The lymphoma may come back in the lymph system or in other parts of the body, such as the lungs, liver, bones, or bone marrow.

Treatment Option Overview

Key Points for This Section


There are different types of treatment for children with Hodgkin lymphoma.

Different types of treatment are available for children with Hodgkin lymphoma. Some treatments are standard and some are being tested in clinical trials. A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment.

Because cancer in children is rare, taking part in a clinical trial should be considered. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.

Children with Hodgkin lymphoma should have their treatment planned by a team of health care providers with expertise in treating childhood cancer.

Treatment will be overseen by a pediatric oncologist, a doctor who specializes in treating children with cancer. The pediatric oncologist works with other pediatric health care providers who are experts in treating children with Hodgkin lymphoma and who specialize in certain areas of medicine. These may include the following specialists:

Three types of standard treatment are used:

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid, an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy). Combination chemotherapy is treatment using more than one anticancer drug. The way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.

See Drugs Approved for Hodgkin Lymphoma 12 for more information.

Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. There are two types of radiation therapy. External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer. Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer. The way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.

Targeted therapy

Targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells. One type of targeted therapy being used in the treatment of childhood Hodgkin lymphoma is monoclonal antibody therapy.

Monoclonal antibody therapy is a cancer treatment that uses antibodies made in the laboratory from a single type of immune system cell. These antibodies can identify substances on cancer cells or normal substances that may help cancer cells grow. The antibodies attach to the substances and kill the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading. Monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion. They may be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive material directly to cancer cells.

New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.

This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied. Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 13.

High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant

High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant is a way of giving high doses of chemotherapy and replacing blood -forming cells destroyed by the cancer treatment. Stem cells (immature blood cells) are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored. After the chemotherapy is completed, the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion. These reinfused stem cells grow into (and restore) the body's blood cells.

Surgery

Surgery may be done to remove as much of the tumor as possible.

Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.

For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.

Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.

Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.

Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.

Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.

Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's listing of clinical trials.

Follow-up tests may be needed.

Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests. This is sometimes called re-staging.

Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.

After one or two cycles of chemotherapy for childhood Hodgkin lymphoma, a PET scan may be done to see how well the lymphoma is responding to treatment. Re-staging 14 is done after chemotherapy ends.

Treatment Options for Children and Adolescents with Hodgkin Lymphoma

A link to a list of current clinical trials is included for each treatment section. For some types or stages of cancer, there may not be any trials listed. Check with your doctor for clinical trials that are not listed here but may be right for you.

Low-Risk Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma

Treatment of low-risk childhood Hodgkin lymphoma may include combination chemotherapy with or without low-dose radiation therapy to involved areas.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage I childhood Hodgkin lymphoma 15 and stage II childhood Hodgkin lymphoma 16. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 17.

Intermediate-Risk Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma

Treatment of intermediate-risk childhood Hodgkin lymphoma may include combination chemotherapy with low-dose radiation therapy to involved areas.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage I childhood Hodgkin lymphoma 15, stage II childhood Hodgkin lymphoma 16, stage III childhood Hodgkin lymphoma 18 and stage IV childhood Hodgkin lymphoma 19. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 17.

High-Risk Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma

Treatment of high-risk childhood Hodgkin lymphoma may include the following:

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage III childhood Hodgkin lymphoma 18 and stage IV childhood Hodgkin lymphoma 19. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 17.

Nodular Lymphocyte Predominant Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma

Treatment of nodular lymphocyte predominant childhood Hodgkin lymphoma may include the following:

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with childhood nodular lymphocyte predominant Hodgkin lymphoma 20. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 17.

Treatment Options for Primary Progressive/Recurrent Hodgkin Lymphoma in Children and Adolescents

Treatment of primary progressive or recurrent childhood Hodgkin lymphoma may include the following:

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with recurrent/refractory childhood Hodgkin lymphoma 21. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 17.

Late Effects from Childhood and Adolescent Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment

Children and adolescents may have treatment-related side effects that appear months or years after treatment for Hodgkin lymphoma. Because of these late effects on health and development, regular follow-up exams are important. Late effects may include problems with the following:

There is an increased risk of developing breast cancer for female survivors of Hodgkin lymphoma. This risk depends on the amount of radiation therapy they received during treatment. It is suggested that these patients have a mammogram once a year starting 8 years after treatment or at age 25 years, whichever is later. Female survivors of Hodgkin lymphoma who have breast cancer have an increased risk of dying from the disease compared to patients with no history of Hodgkin lymphoma who have breast cancer.

The risk of these long-term side effects will be considered when treatment decisions are made. (See the PDQ summary on Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer 22 for more information.)

To Learn More About Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma

For more information from the National Cancer Institute about childhood Hodgkin lymphoma, see the following:

For more childhood cancer information and other general cancer resources from the National Cancer Institute, see the following:

Changes to This Summary (02/09/2012)

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Editorial changes were made to this summary.

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About PDQ

PDQ is a comprehensive cancer database available on NCI's Web site.

PDQ is the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) comprehensive cancer information database. Most of the information contained in PDQ is available online at NCI's Web site 42. PDQ is provided as a service of the NCI. The NCI is part of the National Institutes of Health, the federal government's focal point for biomedical research.

PDQ contains cancer information summaries.

The PDQ database contains summaries of the latest published information on cancer prevention, detection, genetics, treatment, supportive care, and complementary and alternative medicine. Most summaries are available in two versions. The health professional versions provide detailed information written in technical language. The patient versions are written in easy-to-understand, nontechnical language. Both versions provide current and accurate cancer information.

The PDQ cancer information summaries are developed by cancer experts and reviewed regularly.

Editorial Boards made up of experts in oncology and related specialties are responsible for writing and maintaining the cancer information summaries. The summaries are reviewed regularly and changes are made as new information becomes available. The date on each summary ("Date Last Modified") indicates the time of the most recent change.

PDQ also contains information on clinical trials.

A clinical trial is a study to answer a scientific question, such as whether one treatment is better than another. Trials are based on past studies and what has been learned in the laboratory. Each trial answers certain scientific questions in order to find new and better ways to help cancer patients. During treatment clinical trials, information is collected about the effects of a new treatment and how well it works. If a clinical trial shows that a new treatment is better than one currently being used, the new treatment may become "standard." In the United States, about two-thirds of children with cancer are treated in a clinical trial at some point in their illness.

Listings of clinical trials are included in PDQ and are available online at NCI's Web site 17. Descriptions of the trials are available in health professional and patient versions. For additional help in locating a childhood cancer clinical trial, call the Cancer Information Service at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237).

The PDQ database contains listings of groups specializing in clinical trials.

The Children's Oncology Group (COG) is the major group that organizes clinical trials for childhood cancers in the United States. Information about contacting COG is available on the NCI Web site 42 or from the Cancer Information Service at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237).



Glossary Terms

abdomen (AB-doh-men)
The area of the body that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.
biopsy (BY-op-see)
The removal of cells or tissues for examination by a pathologist. The pathologist may study the tissue under a microscope or perform other tests on the cells or tissue. There are many different types of biopsy procedures. The most common types include: (1) incisional biopsy, in which only a sample of tissue is removed; (2) excisional biopsy, in which an entire lump or suspicious area is removed; and (3) needle biopsy, in which a sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle. When a wide needle is used, the procedure is called a core biopsy. When a thin needle is used, the procedure is called a fine-needle aspiration biopsy.
blood (blud)
A tissue with red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and other substances suspended in fluid called plasma. Blood takes oxygen and nutrients to the tissues, and carries away wastes.
blood chemistry study (blud KEH-mih-stree STUH-dee)
A procedure in which a sample of blood is examined to measure the amounts of certain substances made in the body. An abnormal amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that produces it.
bone marrow (bone MAYR-oh)
The soft, sponge-like tissue in the center of most bones. It produces white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.
breastbone (brest-bone)
The long flat bone that forms the center front of the chest wall. The breastbone is attached to the collarbone and the first seven ribs. Also called sternum.
cancer (KAN-ser)
A term for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and can invade nearby tissues. Cancer cells can also spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems. There are several main types of cancer. Carcinoma is a cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs. Sarcoma is a cancer that begins in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue. Leukemia is a cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow, and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the blood. Lymphoma and multiple myeloma are cancers that begin in the cells of the immune system. Central nervous system cancers are cancers that begin in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord. Also called malignancy.
cell (sel)
The individual unit that makes up the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
chest x-ray (chest EX-ray)
An x-ray of the structures inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of high-energy radiation that can go through the body and onto film, making pictures of areas inside the chest, which can be used to diagnose disease.
classical Hodgkin lymphoma (KLA-sih-kul HOJ-kin lim-FOH-muh)
The most common type of Hodgkin lymphoma, which is a cancer of the immune system. Classical Hodgkin lymphoma is marked by the presence of a type of cell called the Reed-Sternberg cell.
clinical trial (KLIH-nih-kul TRY-ul)
A type of research study that tests how well new medical approaches work in people. These studies test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. Also called clinical study.
complete blood count (kum-PLEET blud kownt)
A test to check the number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in a sample of blood. Also called blood cell count and CBC.
condition (kun-DIH-shun)
In medicine, a health problem with certain characteristics or symptoms.
contrast material (KON-trast muh-TEER-ee-ul)
A dye or other substance that helps show abnormal areas inside the body. It is given by injection into a vein, by enema, or by mouth. Contrast material may be used with x-rays, CT scans, MRI, or other imaging tests.
core biopsy (... BY-op-see)
The removal of a tissue sample with a wide needle for examination under a microscope. Also called core needle biopsy.
CT scan (… skan)
A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles. The pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called CAT scan, computed tomography scan, computerized axial tomography scan, and computerized tomography.
cure (kyoor)
To heal or restore health; a treatment to restore health.
diagnosis (DY-ug-NOH-sis)
The process of identifying a disease, such as cancer, from its signs and symptoms.
Epstein-Barr virus (ep-stine-BAR VY-rus)
A common virus that remains dormant in most people. It causes infectious mononucleosis and has been associated with certain cancers, including Burkitt lymphoma, immunoblastic lymphoma, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Also called EBV.
excisional biopsy (ek-SIH-zhuh-nul BY-op-see)
A surgical procedure in which an entire lump or suspicious area is removed for diagnosis. The tissue is then examined under a microscope.
fever (FEE-ver)
An increase in body temperature above normal (98.6 degrees F), usually caused by disease.
fine-needle aspiration biopsy (... NEE-dul AS-pih-RAY-shun BY-op-see)
The removal of tissue or fluid with a thin needle for examination under a microscope. Also called FNA biopsy.
fluid (FLOO-id)
A substance that flows smoothly and takes the shape of its container. Liquids and gases are fluids.
glucose (GLOO-kose)
A type of sugar; the chief source of energy for living organisms.
groin (groyn)
The area where the thigh meets the abdomen.
hemoglobin (HEE-moh-GLOH-bin)
The substance inside red blood cells that binds to oxygen in the lungs and carries it to the tissues.
Hodgkin lymphoma (HOJ-kin lim-FOH-muh)
A cancer of the immune system that is marked by the presence of a type of cell called the Reed-Sternberg cell. The two major types of Hodgkin lymphoma are classical Hodgkin lymphoma and nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin lymphoma. Symptoms include the painless enlargement of lymph nodes, spleen, or other immune tissue. Other symptoms include fever, weight loss, fatigue, or night sweats. Also called Hodgkin disease.
immune system (ih-MYOON SIS-tem)
The complex group of organs and cells that defends the body against infections and other diseases.
immunophenotyping (IH-myoo-noh-FEE-noh-ty-ping)
A process used to identify cells, based on the types of antigens or markers on the surface of the cell. This process is used to diagnose specific types of leukemia and lymphoma by comparing the cancer cells to normal cells of the immune system.
incisional biopsy (in-SIH-zhuh-nul BY-op-see)
A surgical procedure in which a portion of a lump or suspicious area is removed for diagnosis. The tissue is then examined under a microscope to check for signs of disease.
infection (in-FEK-shun)
Invasion and multiplication of germs in the body. Infections can occur in any part of the body and can spread throughout the body. The germs may be bacteria, viruses, yeast, or fungi. They can cause a fever and other problems, depending on where the infection occurs. When the body’s natural defense system is strong, it can often fight the germs and prevent infection. Some cancer treatments can weaken the natural defense system.
injection (in-JEK-shun)
Use of a syringe and needle to push fluids or drugs into the body; often called a "shot."
long-term side effect (... eh-FEKT)
A problem that is caused by cancer treatment and continues for months or years after treatment ends. Some long-term side effects of cancer treatment include heart, lung, kidney, or gastrointestinal tract problems; fatigue, pain, numbness, tingling, loss of feeling, or heat or cold sensitivity in the hands or feet; hearing loss; cataracts; dry eyes; or dry mouth.
lymph (limf)
The clear fluid that travels through the lymphatic system and carries cells that help fight infections and other diseases. Also called lymphatic fluid.
lymph node (limf node)
A rounded mass of lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Lymph nodes filter lymph (lymphatic fluid), and they store lymphocytes (white blood cells). They are located along lymphatic vessels. Also called lymph gland.
lymph vessel (limf ...)
A thin tube that carries lymph (lymphatic fluid) and white blood cells through the lymphatic system. Also called lymphatic vessel.
lymphatic system (lim-FA-tik SIS-tem)
The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infections and other diseases. This system includes the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels (a network of thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells). Lymphatic vessels branch, like blood vessels, into all the tissues of the body.
lymphocyte (LIM-foh-site)
A type of immune cell that is made in the bone marrow and is found in the blood and in lymph tissue. The two main types of lymphocytes are B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. B lymphocytes make antibodies, and T lymphocytes help kill tumor cells and help control immune responses. A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell.
lymphoma (lim-FOH-muh)
Cancer that begins in cells of the immune system. There are two basic categories of lymphomas. One kind is Hodgkin lymphoma, which is marked by the presence of a type of cell called the Reed-Sternberg cell. The other category is non-Hodgkin lymphomas, which includes a large, diverse group of cancers of immune system cells. Non-Hodgkin lymphomas can be further divided into cancers that have an indolent (slow-growing) course and those that have an aggressive (fast-growing) course. These subtypes behave and respond to treatment differently. Both Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas can occur in children and adults, and prognosis and treatment depend on the stage and the type of cancer.
malignant (muh-LIG-nunt)
Cancerous. Malignant cells can invade and destroy nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body.
medical history (MEH-dih-kul HIH-stuh-ree)
A record of information about a person’s health. A personal medical history may include information about allergies, illnesses, surgeries, immunizations, and results of physical exams and tests. It may also include information about medicines taken and health habits, such as diet and exercise. A family medical history includes health information about a person’s close family members (parents, grandparents, children, brothers, and sisters). This includes their current and past illnesses. A family medical history may show a pattern of certain diseases in a family.
microscope (MY-kroh-SKOPE)
An instrument that is used to look at cells and other small objects that cannot be seen with the eye alone.
nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin lymphoma (NAH-juh-ler LIM-foh-site preh-DAH-mih-nunt HOJ-kin lim-FOH-muh)
A rare type of Hodgkin lymphoma, which is a cancer of the immune system. It is marked by the presence of a type of cell called a popcorn cell, which is different from the typical Reed-Sternberg cell found in classical Hodgkin lymphoma. This type of Hodgkin lymphoma may change into diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Also called NLPHL.
non-Hodgkin lymphoma (non-HOJ-kin lim-FOH-muh)
Any of a large group of cancers of lymphocytes (white blood cells). Non-Hodgkin lymphomas can occur at any age and are often marked by lymph nodes that are larger than normal, fever, and weight loss. There are many different types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. These types can be divided into aggressive (fast-growing) and indolent (slow-growing) types, and they can be formed from either B-cells or T-cells. B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas include Burkitt lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma (CLL/SLL), diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, immunoblastic large cell lymphoma, precursor B-lymphoblastic lymphoma, and mantle cell lymphoma. T-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas include mycosis fungoides, anaplastic large cell lymphoma, and precursor T-lymphoblastic lymphoma. Lymphomas that occur after bone marrow or stem cell transplantation are usually B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas. Prognosis and treatment depend on the stage and type of disease. Also called NHL.
organ (OR-gun)
A part of the body that performs a specific function. For example, the heart is an organ.
oxygen (OK-sih-jen)
A colorless, odorless gas. It is needed for animal and plant life. Oxygen that is breathed in enters the blood from the lungs and travels to the tissues.
pathologist (puh-THAH-loh-jist)
A doctor who identifies diseases by studying cells and tissues under a microscope.
PDQ
PDQ is an online database developed and maintained by the National Cancer Institute. Designed to make the most current, credible, and accurate cancer information available to health professionals and the public, PDQ contains peer-reviewed summaries on cancer treatment, screening, prevention, genetics, complementary and alternative medicine, and supportive care; a registry of cancer clinical trials from around the world; and directories of physicians, professionals who provide genetics services, and organizations that provide cancer care. Most of this information, and more specific information about PDQ, can be found on the NCI's Web site at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq. Also called Physician Data Query.
pelvis (PEL-vus)
The lower part of the abdomen, located between the hip bones.
PET scan (… skan)
A procedure in which a small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein, and a scanner is used to make detailed, computerized pictures of areas inside the body where the glucose is used. Because cancer cells often use more glucose than normal cells, the pictures can be used to find cancer cells in the body. Also called positron emission tomography scan.
physical examination (FIH-zih-kul eg-ZA-mih-NAY-shun)
An exam of the body to check for general signs of disease.
platelet (PLAYT-let)
A tiny piece of a cell found in the blood that breaks off from a large cell found in the bone marrow. Platelets help wounds heal and prevent bleeding by forming blood clots. Also called thrombocyte.
primary tumor (PRY-mayr-ee TOO-mer)
The original tumor.
prognosis (prog-NO-sis)
The likely outcome or course of a disease; the chance of recovery or recurrence.
progressive disease (pruh-GREH-siv dih-ZEEZ)
Cancer that is growing, spreading, or getting worse.
protein (PROH-teen)
A molecule made up of amino acids that are needed for the body to function properly. Proteins are the basis of body structures such as skin and hair and of substances such as enzymes, cytokines, and antibodies.
radioactive (RAY-dee-oh-AK-tiv)
Giving off radiation.
recover (ree-KUH-ver)
To become well and healthy again.
recurrent cancer (ree-KER-ent KAN-ser)
Cancer that has recurred (come back), usually after a period of time during which the cancer could not be detected. The cancer may come back to the same place as the original (primary) tumor or to another place in the body. Also called recurrence.
red blood cell (red blud sel)
A cell that carries oxygen to all parts of the body. Also called erythrocyte and RBC.
Reed-Sternberg cell (reed-STERN-berg sel)
A type of cell that appears in people with Hodgkin disease. The number of these cells increases as the disease advances.
response (reh-SPONTS)
In medicine, an improvement related to treatment.
risk factor (... FAK-ter)
Something that increases the chance of developing a disease. Some examples of risk factors for cancer are age, a family history of certain cancers, use of tobacco products, being exposed to radiation or certain chemicals, infection with certain viruses or bacteria, and certain genetic changes.
scanner (SKA-ner)
In medicine, an instrument that takes pictures of the inside of the body.
sedimentation rate (SEH-dih-men-TAY-shun rayt)
The distance red blood cells travel in one hour in a sample of blood as they settle to the bottom of a test tube. The sedimentation rate is increased in inflammation, infection, cancer, rheumatic diseases, and diseases of the blood and bone marrow. Also called erythrocyte sedimentation rate and ESR.
side effect (side eh-FEKT)
A problem that occurs when treatment affects healthy tissues or organs. Some common side effects of cancer treatment are fatigue, pain, nausea, vomiting, decreased blood cell counts, hair loss, and mouth sores.
spleen (spleen)
An organ that is part of the lymphatic system. The spleen makes lymphocytes, filters the blood, stores blood cells, and destroys old blood cells. It is located on the left side of the abdomen near the stomach.
stage (stayj)
The extent of a cancer in the body. Staging is usually based on the size of the tumor, whether lymph nodes contain cancer, and whether the cancer has spread from the original site to other parts of the body.
stomach (STUH-muk)
An organ that is part of the digestive system. The stomach helps digest food by mixing it with digestive juices and churning it into a thin liquid.
symptom (SIMP-tum)
An indication that a person has a condition or disease. Some examples of symptoms are headache, fever, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and pain.
throat (throte)
The hollow tube inside the neck that starts behind the nose and ends at the top of the trachea (windpipe) and esophagus (the tube that goes to the stomach). The throat is about 5 inches long, depending on body size. Also called pharynx.
thymus (THY-mus)
An organ that is part of the lymphatic system, in which T lymphocytes grow and multiply. The thymus is in the chest behind the breastbone.
tissue (TIH-shoo)
A group or layer of cells that work together to perform a specific function.
tonsil (TON-sil)
One of two small masses of lymphoid tissue on either side of the throat.
tumor (TOO-mer)
An abnormal mass of tissue that results when cells divide more than they should or do not die when they should. Tumors may be benign (not cancer), or malignant (cancer). Also called neoplasm.
vein (vayn)
A blood vessel that carries blood to the heart from tissues and organs in the body.
white blood cell (hwite blud sel)
A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells. Also called leukocyte and WBC.
x-ray (EX-ray)
A type of radiation used in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer and other diseases. In low doses, x-rays are used to diagnose diseases by making pictures of the inside of the body. In high doses, x-rays are used to treat cancer.

Table of Links

1http://www.cancer.gov/PublishedContent/MediaLinks/291101.html
2http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/child-non-hodgkins/Patient
3http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/adulthodgkins/Patient
4http://www.cancer.gov/PublishedContent/MediaLinks/291102.html
5http://www.cancer.gov/PublishedContent/MediaLinks/291103.html
6http://www.cancer.gov/PublishedContent/MediaLinks/291104.html
7http://www.cancer.gov/PublishedContent/MediaLinks/291105.html
8http://www.cancer.gov/PublishedContent/MediaLinks/291106.html
9http://www.cancer.gov/PublishedContent/MediaLinks/291107.html
10http://www.cancer.gov/PublishedContent/MediaLinks/291108.html
11http://www.cancer.gov/PublishedContent/MediaLinks/291109.html
12http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/druginfo/Hodgkinlymphoma
13http://cancer.gov/clinicaltrials
14http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/childhodgkins/Patient/Page2#Se
ction_138
15http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?Diagnosis=40229&tt=1&a
mp;format=1&cn=1
16http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?Diagnosis=40227&tt=1&a
mp;format=1&cn=1
17http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials
18http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?Diagnosis=40230&tt=1&a
mp;format=1&cn=1
19http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?Diagnosis=40231&tt=1&a
mp;format=1&cn=1
20http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?Diagnosis=566058&tt=1&
amp;format=1&cn=1
21http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?Diagnosis=40232&tt=1&a
mp;format=1&cn=1
22http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/lateeffects/Patient
23http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/hodgkins
24http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/immunesystem
25http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/targeted
26http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/targetedtherapies
27http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/StemCells
28http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/bone-marrow-transplant
29http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/overview
30http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/childhoodcancers
31http://www.curesearch.org
32http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/aya
33http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/youngpeople
34http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/NCI/children-adolescents
35http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/cancer
36http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Detection/staging
37http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/coping
38http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/cancerlibrary/questions
39http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/literature
40http://dccps.nci.nih.gov/ocs/resources.html
41https://livehelp.cancer.gov
42http://cancer.gov
43https://pubs.cancer.gov/ncipl