Aromatherapy With Essential Oils (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version

This cancer information summary provides an overview of the use of aromatherapy with essential oils primarily to improve the quality of life of cancer patients. This summary includes a brief history of aromatherapy, a review of laboratory studies and clinical trials, and possible adverse effects associated with aromatherapy use.

This summary contains the following key information:

Many of the medical and scientific terms used in the summary are hypertext linked (at first use in each section) to the NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms, which is oriented toward nonexperts. When a linked term is clicked, a definition will appear in a separate window.

Reference citations in some PDQ cancer information summaries may include links to external websites that are operated by individuals or organizations for the purpose of marketing or advocating the use of specific treatments or products. These reference citations are included for informational purposes only. Their inclusion should not be viewed as an endorsement of the content of the websites, or of any treatment or product, by the PDQ Integrative, Alternative, and Complementary Therapies Editorial Board or the National Cancer Institute.

Aromatherapy is a derivative of herbal medicine, which is itself a subset of the biological or nature-based complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) therapies. Aromatherapy has been defined as the therapeutic use of essential oils from plants for the improvement of physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being.

Essential oils are volatile liquid substances extracted from aromatic plant material by steam distillation or mechanical expression. Essential oils produced with the aid of chemical solvents are not considered true essential oils because the solvent residues can alter the quality of the essential oils and lead to adulteration of the fragrance or to skin irritation.

Essential oils are made up of a large array of chemical components that consist of the metabolites found in various plant materials. The major chemical components of essential oils include monoterpenes, esters, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, phenols, and oxides, which are volatile and may produce characteristic odors. Different types of essential oils contain varying amounts of each of these compounds, which are said to give each essential oil its particular fragrance and therapeutic characteristics. Plant species may have different chemovarieties (variations of subspecies that produce essential oils with different chemical compositions, as a result of genetic variation and growth conditions).[1] Thus, their essential oils can occur as several chemotypes that differ in chemical composition and may produce different clinical effects. It should be noted that essential oils are distinctly different chemically from (fatty) oils, such as those used as food. As essential oils age, the chemical composition changes. Many essential oils do not have an expiration date.

Synthetic odors are often made up of many of the same compounds that are components of the essential oils. These compounds are synthesized and typically combined with other odor-producing chemicals. However, synthetic fragrances frequently contain irritants, such as solvents and propellants, that can trigger sensitivities in some people.[2-4] Most aromatherapists believe that synthetic fragrances are inferior to essential oils because they lack natural or vital energy; however, this has been contested by odor psychologists and biochemists.[5]

Aromatherapy is used or claimed to be useful for a vast array of symptoms and conditions. Published studies regarding the uses of aromatherapy have generally focused on its psychological effects as a stress reliever or anxiolytic agent or its use as a topical treatment for skin-related conditions.

A large body of literature has been published on the effects of odors on the human brain and emotions. Some studies have tested the effects of essential oils on mood, alertness, and mental stress in healthy participants. Other studies investigated the effects of various (usually synthetic) odors on task performance, reaction time, and autonomic parameters or evaluated the direct effects of odors on the brain via electroencephalogram patterns and functional imaging studies.[6] Such studies have consistently shown that odors can produce specific effects on human neuropsychological and autonomic function and that odors can influence mood, perceived health, and arousal. These studies suggest that odors may have therapeutic applications in the context of stressful and adverse psychological conditions.

Practitioners of aromatherapy apply essential oils using several different methods, including the following:

Other direct and indirect applications include mixing essential oils in bath salts and lotions or applying them to dressings.

Different aromatherapy practitioners may have different recipes for treating specific conditions, involving various combinations of essential oils and methods of application. Differences seem to be practitioner dependent, with some common uses more accepted throughout the aromatherapy community. Training and certification in aromatherapy for lay practitioners is available at several schools throughout the United States and United Kingdom; however, there is no professional standardization in the United States and no license is required to practice in either country. Thus, there is little consistency among practitioners in the specific treatments used for specific illnesses. This lack of standardization has led to variability in therapeutic protocols used in research on the effects of aromatherapy. Anecdotal evidence alone or previous experience has driven the choice of essential oils and different researchers choose different essential oils when studying the same applications. However, now there are specific courses for licensed health professionals that give nursing or continuing medical education credit hours, including a small research component and information about evaluating and measuring outcomes.

The National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy (NAHA) (www.naha.org/) and the Alliance of International Aromatherapists (www.alliance-aromatherapists.org) are the two governing bodies for national educational standards for aromatherapists. NAHA is taking steps toward standardizing aromatherapy certification in the United States. Many schools offer certificate programs approved by NAHA. A list of these schools can be found on the NAHA website (https://naha.org/index.php/education/approved-schools/). National examinations in aromatherapy are held twice per year.

The Canadian Federation of Aromatherapists has established standards for aromatherapy certification in Canada (www.cfacanada.com/). They also have standards for safety and professional conduct and a public directory of certified aromatherapists. Other countries may have similar organizations.

Although essential oils are given orally or internally by aromatherapists in France and Germany, their use is generally limited to inhalation or topical application in the United Kingdom and United States. Nonmedical use of essential oils is common in the flavoring and fragrance industries. Most essential oils have been classified as GRAS (generally recognized as safe), at specified concentration limits, by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). For a list of international aromatherapy programs, see the International Federation of Aromatherapists website (www.ifaroma.org/).

Aromatherapy products do not need approval by the FDA.

References

1. Wildwood C: The Encyclopedia of Aromatherapy. Healing Arts Press, 1996.
2. Silva-Néto RP, Peres MF, Valença MM: Odorant substances that trigger headaches in migraine patients. Cephalalgia 34 (1): 14-21, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Vethanayagam D, Vliagoftis H, Mah D, et al.: Fragrance materials in asthma: a pilot study using a surrogate aerosol product. J Asthma 50 (9): 975-82, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Celeiro M, Guerra E, Lamas JP, et al.: Development of a multianalyte method based on micro-matrix-solid-phase dispersion for the analysis of fragrance allergens and preservatives in personal care products. J Chromatogr A 1344: 1-14, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Dodd GH: The molecular dimension in perfumery. In: Van Toller S, Dodd GH, eds.: Perfumery: The Psychology and Biology of Fragrance. Chapman and Hall, 1988, pp 19-46.
6. Buchbauer G, Jirovetz L, Jäger W, et al.: Fragrance compounds and essential oils with sedative effects upon inhalation. J Pharm Sci 82 (6): 660-4, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]

Proponents of aromatherapy report that aromatic or essential oils have been used for thousands of years as stimulants or sedatives of the nervous system and as treatments for a wide range of other disorders.[1] They link it historically to the use of infused oils and unguents in the Bible and ancient Egypt,[1] remedies used throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance,[2] and the burning of aromatic plants in various religious rites. The current applications of aromatherapy did not come about until the early 20th century when the French chemist and perfumer Rene Gattefosse coined the term aromatherapy and published a book of that name in 1937.[2] Gattefosse proposed the use of aromatherapy to treat diseases in virtually every organ system, citing mostly anecdotal and case-based evidence.[2]

Although Gattefosse and his colleagues in France, Italy, and Germany studied the effects of aromatherapy for some 30 years, its use went out of fashion midcentury and was rediscovered by another Frenchman, a physician, Jean Valnet, in the latter part of the century. Valnet published his book The Practice of Aromatherapy in 1982,[3] at which time the practice became more well-known in Britain and the United States. Through the 1980s and 1990s, as patients in Western countries became increasingly interested in complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) treatments, aromatherapy developed a following that continues to grow to this day. In addition to the use of essential oils by nurses and aromatherapy practitioners for specific medical issues, the popularity of aromatherapy has also been exploited by cosmetics companies that have created lines of essential oil-based (although often with a synthetic component) cosmetics and toiletries, claiming to improve mood and well-being in their users.

Despite the growing popularity of aromatherapy in the latter part of the 20th century (especially in the United Kingdom), little research on aromatherapy was available in the English-language medical literature until the early or mid-1990s. The research that began to appear in the 1990s was most often conducted by nurses, who tended to be the primary practitioners of aromatherapy in the United States and United Kingdom (although it is dispensed by medical doctors in France and Germany). Aromatherapists now publish their own journal, the International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics. Also, many studies regarding the effects of odor on the brain and other systems in animals and healthy humans have been published in the context of odor psychology and neurobiology (and in the absence of the specific term aromatherapy).

In addition to topical antimicrobial uses,[4] aromatherapy has also been proposed for use in wound care [5,6] and to treat a variety of localized symptoms and illnesses such as alopecia, eczema, and pruritus.[7-9] Aromatherapy has also been studied via inhalation for airway reactivity.[10]

Studies on aromatherapy have examined a variety of other conditions, including the following:

Published articles have described the use of aromatherapy in specific hospital settings such as cancer wards, hospices, and other areas where patients are critically ill and require palliative care for the following symptoms:

In addition, observational studies provide examples of the clinical uses of aromatherapy (and other CAM modalities), although they are generally not evidence based. Participants have included homebound patients with terminal disease,[50] and hospitalized patients with leukemia.[51] Aromatherapy has also been used to reduce malodor of necrotic ulcers in cancer patients.[52]

Studies of aromatherapy use with mental health patients have also been conducted.[53] Most of the resulting articles describe successful incorporation of aromatherapy into the treatment of these patients, although outcomes are clearly subjective.

Theories about the mechanism of action of aromatherapy with essential oils differ, depending on the community studying them. Proponents of aromatherapy often cite the connection between olfaction and the limbic system in the brain as the basis for the effects of aromatherapy on mood and emotions; less is said about proposed mechanisms for its effects on other parts of the body. Most of the aromatherapy literature, however, lacks in-depth neurophysiological studies on the nature of olfaction and its link to the limbic system, and it generally does not cite research that shows these links. Proponents of aromatherapy also believe that the effects of the treatments are based on the special nature of the essential oils used and that essential oils produce effects on the body that are greater than the sum of the individual chemical components of the scents.

These assertions have been contested by the biochemistry and psychology communities, which take a different view of the possible mechanism of action of odors on the human brain (most do not differentiate the odors produced by essential oils from those of synthetic fragrances).[30] This neurobiological view, which focuses mostly on the emotional and psychological effects of fragrances (as opposed to the other symptomatic effects claimed by aromatherapists), takes into account what is known about olfactory transduction and the connection of the olfactory system to other central nervous system functions, including memory; however, it is primarily theoretical because of the lack of significant research addressing this topic.

References

1. Tisserand R: Essential oils as psychotherapeutic agents. In: Van Toller S, Dodd GH, eds.: Perfumery: The Psychology and Biology of Fragrance. Chapman and Hall, 1988, pp 167-80.
2. Gattefosse RM: Gattefosse's Aromatherapy. CW Daniel, 1993.
3. Valnet J: The Practice of Aromatherapy: A Classic Compendium of Plant Medicines & Their Healing Properties. Healing Arts Press, 1990.
4. Hartman D, Coetzee JC: Two US practitioners' experience of using essential oils for wound care. J Wound Care 11 (8): 317-20, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Asquith S: The use of aromatherapy in wound care. J Wound Care 8 (6): 318-20, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Edwards-Jones V, Buck R, Shawcross SG, et al.: The effect of essential oils on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus using a dressing model. Burns 30 (8): 772-7, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Hay IC, Jamieson M, Ormerod AD: Randomized trial of aromatherapy. Successful treatment for alopecia areata. Arch Dermatol 134 (11): 1349-52, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Anderson C, Lis-Balchin M, Kirk-Smith M: Evaluation of massage with essential oils on childhood atopic eczema. Phytother Res 14 (6): 452-6, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Ro YJ, Ha HC, Kim CG, et al.: The effects of aromatherapy on pruritus in patients undergoing hemodialysis. Dermatol Nurs 14 (4): 231-4, 237-8, 256; quiz 239, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Cohen BM, Dressler WE: Acute aromatics inhalation modifies the airways. Effects of the common cold. Respiration 43 (4): 285-93, 1982. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Diego MA, Jones NA, Field T, et al.: Aromatherapy positively affects mood, EEG patterns of alertness and math computations. Int J Neurosci 96 (3-4): 217-24, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Motomura N, Sakurai A, Yotsuya Y: Reduction of mental stress with lavender odorant. Percept Mot Skills 93 (3): 713-8, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Miltner W, Matjak M, Braun C, et al.: Emotional qualities of odors and their influence on the startle reflex in humans. Psychophysiology 31 (1): 107-10, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Millot JL, Brand G, Morand N: Effects of ambient odors on reaction time in humans. Neurosci Lett 322 (2): 79-82, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Stevenson C: Measuring the effects of aromatherapy. Nurs Times 88 (41): 62-3, 1992 Oct 7-13. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Dunn C, Sleep J, Collett D: Sensing an improvement: an experimental study to evaluate the use of aromatherapy, massage and periods of rest in an intensive care unit. J Adv Nurs 21 (1): 34-40, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Buckle J: Aromatherapy. Nurs Times 89 (20): 32-5, 1993 May 19-25. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Hadfield N: The role of aromatherapy massage in reducing anxiety in patients with malignant brain tumours. Int J Palliat Nurs 7 (6): 279-85, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Wilkinson S: Aromatherapy and massage in palliative care. Int J Palliat Nurs 1 (1): 21-30, 1995.
20. Wilkinson S, Aldridge J, Salmon I, et al.: An evaluation of aromatherapy massage in palliative care. Palliat Med 13 (5): 409-17, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Corner J, Cawler N, Hildebrand S: An evaluation of the use of massage and essential oils on the wellbeing of cancer patients. Int J Palliat Nurs 1 (2): 67-73, 1995.
22. Louis M, Kowalski SD: Use of aromatherapy with hospice patients to decrease pain, anxiety, and depression and to promote an increased sense of well-being. Am J Hosp Palliat Care 19 (6): 381-6, 2002 Nov-Dec. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Walsh E, Wilson C: Complementary therapies in long-stay neurology in-patient settings. Nurs Stand 13 (32): 32-5, 1999 Apr 28-May 4. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Itai T, Amayasu H, Kuribayashi M, et al.: Psychological effects of aromatherapy on chronic hemodialysis patients. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 54 (4): 393-7, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Burns E, Blamey C: Complementary medicine. Using aromatherapy in childbirth. Nurs Times 90 (9): 54-60, 1994 Mar 2-8. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. Burns EE, Blamey C, Ersser SJ, et al.: An investigation into the use of aromatherapy in intrapartum midwifery practice. J Altern Complement Med 6 (2): 141-7, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
27. Kite SM, Maher EJ, Anderson K, et al.: Development of an aromatherapy service at a Cancer Centre. Palliat Med 12 (3): 171-80, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
28. Komori T, Fujiwara R, Tanida M, et al.: Effects of citrus fragrance on immune function and depressive states. Neuroimmunomodulation 2 (3): 174-80, 1995 May-Jun. [PUBMED Abstract]
29. Wiebe E: A randomized trial of aromatherapy to reduce anxiety before abortion. Eff Clin Pract 3 (4): 166-9, 2000 Jul-Aug. [PUBMED Abstract]
30. Perry N, Perry E: Aromatherapy in the management of psychiatric disorders: clinical and neuropharmacological perspectives. CNS Drugs 20 (4): 257-80, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
31. Ballard CG, O'Brien JT, Reichelt K, et al.: Aromatherapy as a safe and effective treatment for the management of agitation in severe dementia: the results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with Melissa. J Clin Psychiatry 63 (7): 553-8, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
32. Smallwood J, Brown R, Coulter F, et al.: Aromatherapy and behaviour disturbances in dementia: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 16 (10): 1010-3, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
33. Holmes C, Hopkins V, Hensford C, et al.: Lavender oil as a treatment for agitated behaviour in severe dementia: a placebo controlled study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 17 (4): 305-8, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
34. Gray SG, Clair AA: Influence of aromatherapy on medication administration to residential-care residents with dementia and behavioral challenges. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen 17 (3): 169-74, 2002 May-Jun. [PUBMED Abstract]
35. Snow LA, Hovanec L, Brandt J: A controlled trial of aromatherapy for agitation in nursing home patients with dementia. J Altern Complement Med 10 (3): 431-7, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
36. Rose JE, Behm FM: Inhalation of vapor from black pepper extract reduces smoking withdrawal symptoms. Drug Alcohol Depend 34 (3): 225-9, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
37. Sayette MA, Parrott DJ: Effects of olfactory stimuli on urge reduction in smokers. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 7 (2): 151-9, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
38. Post-White N, Nichols W: Randomized trial testing of QueaseEase™ essential oil for motion sickness. International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics 1 (4): 158-66, 2007.
39. Tate S: Peppermint oil: a treatment for postoperative nausea. J Adv Nurs 26 (3): 543-9, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
40. Hines S, Steels E, Chang A, et al.: Aromatherapy for treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4: CD007598, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
41. Oyama H, Kaneda M, Katsumata N, et al.: Using the bedside wellness system during chemotherapy decreases fatigue and emesis in cancer patients. J Med Syst 24 (3): 173-82, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
42. Dale A, Cornwell S: The role of lavender oil in relieving perineal discomfort following childbirth: a blind randomized clinical trial. J Adv Nurs 19 (1): 89-96, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
43. Göbel H, Schmidt G, Soyka D: Effect of peppermint and eucalyptus oil preparations on neurophysiological and experimental algesimetric headache parameters. Cephalalgia 14 (3): 228-34; discussion 182, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
44. Marchand S, Arsenault P: Odors modulate pain perception: a gender-specific effect. Physiol Behav 76 (2): 251-6, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
45. Kim JT, Wajda M, Cuff G, et al.: Evaluation of aromatherapy in treating postoperative pain: pilot study. Pain Pract 6 (4): 273-7, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
46. Barclay J, Vestey J, Lambert A, et al.: Reducing the symptoms of lymphoedema: is there a role for aromatherapy? Eur J Oncol Nurs 10 (2): 140-9, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
47. Kohara H, Miyauchi T, Suehiro Y, et al.: Combined modality treatment of aromatherapy, footsoak, and reflexology relieves fatigue in patients with cancer. J Palliat Med 7 (6): 791-6, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
48. Buckle J: Clinical Aromatherapy: Essential Oils in Practice. 2nd ed. Churchill Livingston, 2003.
49. Wilkinson SM, Love SB, Westcombe AM, et al.: Effectiveness of aromatherapy massage in the management of anxiety and depression in patients with cancer: a multicenter randomized controlled trial. J Clin Oncol 25 (5): 532-9, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
50. Rimmer L: The clinical use of aromatherapy in the reduction of stress. Home Healthc Nurse 16 (2): 123-6, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
51. Stringer J: Massage and aromatherapy on a leukaemia unit. Complement Ther Nurs Midwifery 6 (2): 72-6, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
52. Warnke PH, Sherry E, Russo PA, et al.: Antibacterial essential oils in malodorous cancer patients: clinical observations in 30 patients. Phytomedicine 13 (7): 463-7, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
53. Hicks G: Aromatherapy as an adjunct to care in a mental health day hospital. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs 5 (4): 317, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]

Numerous studies on the topical antibacterial effects of essential oils have been published; most have found the essential oils to have significant antimicrobial activity.[1] Some essential oils are antiviral and inhibit replication of the herpes simplex virus.[2] Other essential oils are fungistatic and fungicidal against both vaginal and oropharyngeal Candida albicans.[3]

Studies on rats in Europe and Japan have shown that exposure to various odors can result in stimulation or sedation, as well as changes in behavioral responses to stress and pain. A study [4] on the sedative effects of essential oils and other fragrance compounds (mostly individual chemical components of the essential oils) on rat motility showed that lavender oil (Lavandula angustifolia Miller [synonyms: Lavandula spicata L.; Lavandula vera DC.]) in particular had a significant sedative effect, and several single-oil constituents (as opposed to whole essential oils) had similarly strong effects. The authors do not comment on the presumed mechanism for this effect. The differences in bioavailability are ascribed to different levels of lipophilicity, with the more lipophilic oils producing the most sedative effects. The researchers also found significant plasma levels of the fragrance compounds after inhalation, suggesting that the effects of aromatherapy result from a direct pharmacological interaction rather than an indirect central nervous system relay.

Other studies have investigated the effects of aromatherapy on rats’ behavioral and immunological responses to painful, stressful, or startling stimuli. In two European studies, rats exposed to pleasant odors during painful stimuli exhibited decreased pain-related behaviors, with some variation in response between the sexes.[5,6] Two studies from Japan showed an improvement in immunological and behavioral markers in rats exposed to fragrances while under stressful conditions.[7,8]

References

1. Aridoğan BC, Baydar H, Kaya S, et al.: Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of some essential oils. Arch Pharm Res 25 (6): 860-4, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Minami M, Kita M, Nakaya T, et al.: The inhibitory effect of essential oils on herpes simplex virus type-1 replication in vitro. Microbiol Immunol 47 (9): 681-4, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. D'Auria FD, Tecca M, Strippoli V, et al.: Antifungal activity of Lavandula angustifolia essential oil against Candida albicans yeast and mycelial form. Med Mycol 43 (5): 391-6, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Buchbauer G, Jirovetz L, Jäger W, et al.: Fragrance compounds and essential oils with sedative effects upon inhalation. J Pharm Sci 82 (6): 660-4, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Aloisi AM, Ceccarelli I, Masi F, et al.: Effects of the essential oil from citrus lemon in male and female rats exposed to a persistent painful stimulation. Behav Brain Res 136 (1): 127-35, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Jahangeer AC, Mellier D, Caston J: Influence of olfactory stimulation on nociceptive behavior in mice. Physiol Behav 62 (2): 359-66, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Shibata H, Fujiwara R, Iwamoto M, et al.: Immunological and behavioral effects of fragrance in mice. Int J Neurosci 57 (1-2): 151-9, 1991. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Fujiwara R, Komori T, Noda Y, et al.: Effects of a long-term inhalation of fragrances on the stress-induced immunosuppression in mice. Neuroimmunomodulation 5 (6): 318-22, 1998 Nov-Dec. [PUBMED Abstract]

No studies in the published peer-reviewed literature discuss aromatherapy as a treatment for cancer specifically. The studies discussed below, most of which were conducted in patients with cancer, primarily focus on the following:

These studies purport to test the efficacy of aromatherapy, implying that the products used contain essential oils; however, only an occasional reference article includes significant descriptive information about the product(s) used (e.g., composition, source) thereby greatly limiting the ability of interested clinicians and researchers to compare or duplicate studies or produce meaningful meta-analyses of the research results.

References

1. Cooke B, Ernst E: Aromatherapy: a systematic review. Br J Gen Pract 50 (455): 493-6, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Wilkinson S, Aldridge J, Salmon I, et al.: An evaluation of aromatherapy massage in palliative care. Palliat Med 13 (5): 409-17, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Kite SM, Maher EJ, Anderson K, et al.: Development of an aromatherapy service at a Cancer Centre. Palliat Med 12 (3): 171-80, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. Graham PH, Browne L, Cox H, et al.: Inhalation aromatherapy during radiotherapy: results of a placebo-controlled double-blind randomized trial. J Clin Oncol 21 (12): 2372-6, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Wilcock A, Manderson C, Weller R, et al.: Does aromatherapy massage benefit patients with cancer attending a specialist palliative care day centre? Palliat Med 18 (4): 287-90, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Blackburn L, Achor S, Allen B, et al.: The Effect of Aromatherapy on Insomnia and Other Common Symptoms Among Patients With Acute Leukemia Oncol Nurs Forum 44 (4): E185-E193, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Soden K, Vincent K, Craske S, et al.: A randomized controlled trial of aromatherapy massage in a hospice setting. Palliat Med 18 (2): 87-92, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Ozkaraman A, Dügüm Ö, Özen Yılmaz H, et al.: Aromatherapy: The Effect of Lavender on Anxiety and Sleep Quality in Patients Treated With Chemotherapy Clin J Oncol Nurs 22 (2): 203-210, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. Nakayama M, Okizaki A, Takahashi K: A Randomized Controlled Trial for the Effectiveness of Aromatherapy in Decreasing Salivary Gland Damage following Radioactive Iodine Therapy for Differentiated Thyroid Cancer. Biomed Res Int 2016: 9509810, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Lua PL, Salihah N, Mazlan N: Effects of inhaled ginger aromatherapy on chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting and health-related quality of life in women with breast cancer. Complement Ther Med 23 (3): 396-404, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Potter P, Eisenberg S, Cain KC, et al.: Orange interventions for symptoms associated with dimethyl sulfoxide during stem cell reinfusions: a feasibility study. Cancer Nurs 34 (5): 361-8, 2011 Sep-Oct. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Trambert R, Kowalski MO, Wu B, et al.: A Randomized Controlled Trial Provides Evidence to Support Aromatherapy to Minimize Anxiety in Women Undergoing Breast Biopsy. Worldviews Evid Based Nurs 14 (5): 394-402, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Yayla EM, Ozdemir L: Effect of Inhalation Aromatherapy on Procedural Pain and Anxiety After Needle Insertion Into an Implantable Central Venous Port Catheter: A Quasi-Randomized Controlled Pilot Study. Cancer Nurs 42 (1): 35-41, 2019 Jan/Feb. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Deng C, Xie Y, Liu Y, et al.: Aromatherapy Plus Music Therapy Improve Pain Intensity and Anxiety Scores in Patients With Breast Cancer During Perioperative Periods: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Clin Breast Cancer 22 (2): 115-120, 2022. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Hadfield N: The role of aromatherapy massage in reducing anxiety in patients with malignant brain tumours. Int J Palliat Nurs 7 (6): 279-85, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Wilkinson S: Aromatherapy and massage in palliative care. Int J Palliat Nurs 1 (1): 21-30, 1995.
17. Corner J, Cawler N, Hildebrand S: An evaluation of the use of massage and essential oils on the wellbeing of cancer patients. Int J Palliat Nurs 1 (2): 67-73, 1995.
18. Zorba P, Ozdemir L: The Preliminary Effects of Massage and Inhalation Aromatherapy on Chemotherapy-Induced Acute Nausea and Vomiting: A Quasi-Randomized Controlled Pilot Trial. Cancer Nurs 41 (5): 359-366, 2018 Sep/Oct. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Serfaty M, Wilkinson S, Freeman C, et al.: The ToT study: helping with Touch or Talk (ToT): a pilot randomised controlled trial to examine the clinical effectiveness of aromatherapy massage versus cognitive behaviour therapy for emotional distress in patients in cancer/palliative care. Psychooncology 21 (5): 563-9, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Lai TK, Cheung MC, Lo CK, et al.: Effectiveness of aroma massage on advanced cancer patients with constipation: a pilot study. Complement Ther Clin Pract 17 (1): 37-43, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Gravett P: Treatment of gastrointestinal upset following high-dose chemotherapy. International Journal of Aromatherapy 11 (2): 84-6, 2001.
22. Evans B: An audit into the effects of aromatherapy massage and the cancer patient in palliative and terminal care. Complement Ther Med 3 (4): 239-41, 1995.
23. Worwood VA: Aromatherapy for the Healthy Child: More Than 300 Natural, Non-Toxic, and Fragrant Essential Oil Blends. New World Library, 2000.
24. Ndao DH, Ladas EJ, Cheng B, et al.: Inhalation aromatherapy in children and adolescents undergoing stem cell infusion: results of a placebo-controlled double-blind trial. Psychooncology 21 (3): 247-54, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]

Safety testing on essential oils has shown minimal adverse effects. Several essential oils have been approved for use as food additives and are classified as GRAS (generally recognized as safe) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration; however, ingestion of large amounts of essential oils is not recommended. In addition, a few cases of contact dermatitis have been reported, mostly in aromatherapists who have had prolonged skin contact with essential oils in the context of aromatherapy massage.[1] Some essential oils (e.g., camphor oil) can cause local irritation; therefore, care should be taken when applying them. Phototoxicity has occurred when essential oils (particularly citrus oils) are applied directly to the skin before sun exposure. One case report also showed airborne contact dermatitis in the context of inhaled aromatherapy without massage.[2] Often, aromatherapy uses undefined mixtures of essential oils without specifying the plant sources. Allergic reactions are sometimes reported, especially after topical administration. Individual psychological associations with odors may result in adverse responses. Repeated exposure to lavender and tea tree oils by topical administration was shown in one study to be associated with reversible prepubertal gynecomastia.[3] The effects appear to have been caused by the purported weak estrogenic and antiandrogenic activities of lavender and tea tree oils. Therefore, avoiding these two essential oils is recommended in patients with estrogen-dependant tumors. However, this is the first published report of this type of adverse effect when using products containing tea tree or lavender oils.

References

1. Bilsland D, Strong A: Allergic contact dermatitis from the essential oil of French marigold (Tagetes patula) in an aromatherapist. Contact Dermatitis 23 (1): 55-6, 1990. [PUBMED Abstract]
2. Schaller M, Korting HC: Allergic airborne contact dermatitis from essential oils used in aromatherapy. Clin Exp Dermatol 20 (2): 143-5, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
3. Henley DV, Lipson N, Korach KS, et al.: Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. N Engl J Med 356 (5): 479-85, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]

To assist readers in evaluating the results of human studies of integrative, alternative, and complementary therapies for people with cancer, the strength of the evidence (i.e., the levels of evidence) associated with each type of treatment is provided whenever possible. To qualify for a level of evidence analysis, a study must:

Separate levels of evidence scores are assigned to qualifying human studies on the basis of statistical strength of the study design and scientific strength of the treatment outcomes (i.e., endpoints) measured. The resulting two scores are then combined to produce an overall score, with a score of 1 being the strongest evidence and a score of 4 being the weakest design (or sometime similar). For an explanation of the scores and additional information about levels of evidence analysis for people with cancer, see Levels of Evidence for Human Studies of Integrative, Alternative, and Complementary Therapies.

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Human/Clinical Studies

Added Pediatric Population and Aromatherapy as a new subsection.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Integrative, Alternative, and Complementary Therapies Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® Cancer Information for Health Professionals pages.